Highlights of Thirteenth Finance Commission 2010-15 ( By Arun Joshi,9888933043)

States to get 32 per cent of Central taxes, compared to 30.5 per cent now

Up to 2.5 per cent of divisible pool may be transferred as grants to local bodies

Total transfers to states on the revenue account be capped at 39.5 per cent of the Centre’s gross tax revenue, compared to 37.5 per cent

Centre should target a revenue surplus by 2014-15

Combined debt of Centre and states should be capped at 68 per cent of GDP by March 2015; currently at 82 per cent

In the case of macroeconomic shocks, Centre to borrow and devolve to states instead of relaxing the state borrowing limits

The medium term fiscal plan should be made a statement of commitment

Single rate for goods, services proposed

To make, GST purely consumption based, taxes and cesses should be subsumed

Petrol, diesel, alcohol, tobacco may be charged to GST with additional levies by the Centre and states

Only Public services, unprocessed food items, health, education and transactions between employer and employee be exempted

Poverty in India: Rural and Urban( By Arun Joshi,9888933043)

I. Rural Poverty

Main Reasons for Rural Poverty

Rapid Population Growth
Lack of Capital
Lack of alternate employment opportunities other than agriculture
Excessive population pressure on Agriculture
Illiteracy
Regional disparities
Joint family system
Child marriage tradition
Indifferent attitude towards investment
Lack of proper implementation of Public Distribution System (PDS)

Government Efforts for Eliminating Rural Poverty

Legal elimination of bonded labourers
Preventing the centralization of wealth by modifying the law
Antyodaya plan
Small Farmer Development Programme (SFDP)
Drought Area Development Programme (DADP)
Twenty Point Programme
Food for Work Programme
Minimum Needs Programme (MNP)
Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
National Rural Employment Programme (NREP)
Rural Labour Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP)
Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) (Formerly known as Jawahar Rojgar Yojana)
TRYSEM Scheme
Family planning / welfare programme for population control
Employment Assurance Scheme
Scheme for Rural artisans/craftsmen
DWCRA Programme
Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
Mahila Samridhi Yojana
National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP)
Group Life Insurance Scheme for Rural Areas
Rural Housing Programme
Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY)
Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana
Sampoorna Gramin Rojgar Yojana
Indira Awas Yojana
Samagra Awas Yojana
Pradhan Mantri Rojgar Yojana
Agriculture Income Insurance Scheme
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MNREGS)

II.Urban Poverty

Main Reasons for Urban Poverty

Migration of rural youth towards cities
Lack of vocational education / training
Limited job opportunities of employment in the cities
Rapid increase in population
Lack of housing facilities
No proper implementation of Public Distribution System (PDS)

Government Efforts for Eliminating Urban Poverty

Emphasis on vocational education
Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY)
Self-Employment Programme for the Urban Poor (SEPUP)
Financial assistance for construction houses
Self-Employment to the Educated Urban Youth (SEEUY) Programme
Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (It is also implemented in rural areas)
National Social Assistance Programme
Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP) Programme
Prime Minister’s Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme (PMIUPEP)
Swarna Jayanti Shahri Rozgar Yojana

RAPID GK SERIES

1. IBSA (India, Brazil & South Africa), the international tripartite was originated in this year.
2. In financial newspapers, there is a terminology used called PPP. What is it?
3. The name of the 110th element (named in the year 2001) in periodic table is
4. Name the Agricultural Scientist, who got the Nobel Peace Prize
5. Liberhan Commission is associated with
6. SARFAESI Act was passed in the year
7. The Sixteenth SAARC Summit was held in
8. The Capital of Mongolia is
9. The Chairman of the 13th Finance Commission is
10. 49th Parallel is the boundary line between

Answers

1. 2003
2. Purchasing Power Parity
3. Darmstadtium
4. Normal Borlaug
5. Ayodhya Babri Masjid Demolition Enquiry
6. 2002
7. Thimpu, Bhutan
8. Ulan Bator
9. Dr. Vijay Kelkar
10. Canada and USA

Vedas (By Arun Joshi,9888933043)

The Vedas are a large body of texts originating in Ancient India. They form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism.
According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas are apauruṣeya "not of human agency"being supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śruti ("what is heard").Vedic mantras are recited at Hindu prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions. The mystic dimensions and applications of these mantras as a way of obtaining the physical immortality was elaborated in Sri Aurobindo's Secret of the Veda
The class of "Vedic texts" is aggregated around the four canonical samhitas or Vedas proper, of which three (trayi) are related to the performance of yajna (sacrifice) in historical (Iron Age). The hymns address nature gods such as Varuna (water), Vayu (air), Agni (fire), Indra (thunder-king of gods) etc. asking for prosperity, progeny and so on. The hymns are mean to be recited while performing fire sacrifices and other rituals.

Vedic religion:
1. the Rigveda, containing hymns to be recited by the hotṛ or reciting priest;
2. the Yajurveda, containing formulas to be recited by the adhvaryu or officiating priest;
3. the Samaveda, containing formulas to be sung by the udgātṛ or chanting priest.
4. the Atharvaveda, is one of the oldest and is relatively great in extent from a collection of praises, stories, predictions, charms and some speculative hymns used by the priests .

Philosophies and sects that developed in the Indian subcontinent have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika). Other traditions, notably Buddhism and Jainism, though they are (like the vedanta) similarly concerned with liberation did not regard the Vedas as divine ordinances but rather human expositions of the sphere of higher spiritual knowledge, hence not sacrosanct. These groups are referred to by traditional Hindu texts as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools. In addition to Buddhism and Jainism, Sikhism also does not accept the authority of the Vedas.

Dating

The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts in the world dating from c. 1500-500BCE. Most Indologists agree that an oral tradition existed long before a literary tradition tentatively may have been set in (in one shakha, Kanva) from about the 1st century BCE; however it was again superseded by oral tradition until c. 1000 CE. Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years. The Benares Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript of the mid-14th century; however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal belonging to the Vajasaneyi tradition that are dated from the 11th century onwards.

The Vedic period lasts for about a millennium, spanning the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Gavin Flood sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BCE over a period of several centuries. The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern Black Polished Ware). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 BCE to c. 500-400 BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Mitanni material of ca. 1400 BCE as the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan that may date to the Rigvedic period. However Mitanni Indo-Aryan is linguistically slightly older than the language of the Rigveda, and the comparison thus still does not allow for an absolute dating of any Vedic text. He gives 150 BCE (Patanjali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda.

Categories of Vedic texts

The term "Vedic texts" is used in two distinct meanings:
1. texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit during the Vedic period (Iron Age India)
2. any text considered as "connected to the Vedas" or a "corollary of the Vedas
Vedic Sanskrit corpus
The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes:
• The Samhita (Sanskrit saṃhitā, "collection"), are collections of metric texts ("mantras"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda, most of which are available in several recensions (śākhā). In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhitas. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, apart from the Rigvedic hymns, which were probably essentially complete by 1200 BC, dating to ca. the 12th to 10th centuries BC. The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance (1907) consists of some 89,000 padas (metric feet), of which 72,000 occur in the four Samhitas.
• The Brahmanas are prose texts that discuss, in technical fashion, the solemn sacrificial rituals as well as comment on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions. The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.
• The Aranyakas, or "wilderness texts", are the concluding part of the Brahmanas that contain discussions and interpretations of dangerous rituals (to be studied outside the settlement) and various sorts of additional materials. They are not "forest texts" for ascetics, as is frequently read in secondary literature.
• some of the older Mukhya Upanishads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chandogya, Kaṭha).
• Certain Sutra literature, i.e. the Shrautasutras and the Grhyasutras.

The Shrauta Sutras, regarded as belonging to the smriti, are late Vedic in language and content, thus forming part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus. The composition of the Shrauta and Grhya Sutras (ca. 6th century BC) marks the end of the Vedic period , and at the same time the beginning of the flourishing of the "circum-Vedic" scholarship of Vedanga, introducing the early flowering of classical Sanskrit literature in the Mauryan and Gupta periods.
While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceases with the end of the Vedic period, there is a large number of Upanishads composed after the end of the Vedic period. While most of the ten mukhya Upanishads can be considered to date to the Vedic or Mahajanapada period, most of the 108 Upanishads of the full Muktika canon date to the Common Era.

The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads often interpret the polytheistic and ritualistic Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the self (Atman), introducing Vedanta philosophy, one of the major trends of later Hinduism.

The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is the scope of A Vedic Word Concordance (Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935-1965. Its scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-Vedic" texts.
Volume I: Samhitas
Volume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas
Volume III: Upanishads
Volume IV: Vedangas


Shruti literature

Śruti is a term that describes the sacred texts which comprise the central canon of Hinduism. These works span the entire history of Hinduism, beginning with the some of the earliest known Hindu texts and ending in the early modern period with the later Upanishads. Śruti literature differs from Smrti, or "remembered" texts - which are based upon tradition. Śruti are considered revealed records of the "cosmic sound of truth" heard by rishis (saints or sages).
Pre-eminent in śruti literature are the four Vedas:
• Rig-Veda (hymns recited by the hotar)
• Yajur-Veda (hymns recited by the adhvaryu)
• Sama-Veda (hymns recited by the udgatr)
• Atharva-Veda (a collection of ancient spells and charms)

Rigveda

The Rig-Veda Samhita is the oldest significant existent Indian text. It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas). The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.
The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of some 500 years, which Avari dates as 1400 BCE to 900 BCE, if not earlier According to Max Müller, based on internal evidence (philological and linguistic), the Rigveda was composed roughly between 1700–1100 BCE (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the Indian subcontinent.

Yajurveda

The Yajur-Veda ("Veda of sacrificial formulas") consists of archaic prose mantras and also in part of verses borrowed and adapted from the Rig-Veda. Its purpose was practical, in that each mantra must accompany an action in sacrifice but, unlike the Sama-Veda, it was compiled to apply to all sacrificial rites, not merely the Soma offering. There are two major recensions of this Veda known as the "Black" and "White" Yajur-Veda. The origin and meaning of these designations are not very clear. The White Yajur-Veda contains only the verses and formulas (yajus) necessary for the sacrifice, while their discussion exists in a separate work, the Shatapatha Brahmana. It differs widely from the Black Yajurveda, which incorporates such discussions in the work itself, often immediately following the verses.

Samaveda

The Sama-Veda is the "Veda of melodies" or "Knowledge of melodies". The name of this Veda is from the Sanskrit word sāman which means a melody applied to metrical hymn or song of praise. It consists of 1549 stanzas, taken entirely (except 78) from the Rig-Veda. Like the Rigvedic stanzas in the Yajurveda, the Samans have been changed and adapted for use in singing.

Atharvaveda

The Artharva-Veda is the "Knowledge of the [atharvans] (and Angirasa)". The Artharva-Veda or Atharvangirasa is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa' poets. Apte defined an atharvan as a priest who worshipped fire and Soma. However, the etymology of Atharvan is unclear, but according to Mayrhofer it is related to Avesta athravan .he denies any connection with fire priests. Atharvan was an ancient term for a certain Rishi even in the Rigveda. (The older secondary literature took them as priests who worshipped fire).
The Atharva-Veda Saṃhitā has 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rig-Veda. Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose.

Brahmana

The Brāhmaṇas are part of the Hindu śruti literature. They are commentaries on the four Vedas, detailing the proper performance of rituals.
Each Vedic shakha (school) had its own Brahmana, and it is not known how many of these texts existed during the Mahajanapadas period. About twenty Brahmana have survived into modern times.
The Brahmanas were seminal in the dvelopment of later Indian thought and scholarship, including Hindu philosophy, predecessors of Vedanta, law, astronomy, geometry, linguistics (Panini), the concept of Karma, or the stages in life such as brahmacarya, grihastha and eventually, sannyasi. Some Brahmanas contain sections that are Aranyakas or Upanishads in their own right.

Vedanta

While contemporary traditions continued to maintain Vedic ritualism (Shrauta, Mimamsa), Vedanta renounced all ritualism and radically re-interpreted the notion of "Veda" in purely philosophical terms.
Vedanta is a spiritual tradition explained in the Upanishads that is concerned with the self-realisation by which one understands the ultimate nature of reality (Brahman). Vedanta which implies "the end of all knowledge" - by definition is not restricted or confined to one book and there is no sole source for Vedantic philosophy. Vedanta is based on immutable spiritual laws that are common to religions and spiritual traditions worldwide. Vedanta as the end of knowledge refers to a state of self-realisation, attainment, or cosmic consciousness. Historically and currently Vedanta is understood as a state of transcendence and not as a concept that can be grasped by the intellect alone.

Upanishad

The Upanishads are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings of Vedanta. They do not belong to any particular period of Sanskrit literature: the oldest, such as the Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, date to the late Brahmana period (around the middle of the first millennium BCE), while the latest were composed in the medieval and early modern period. The Upanishads realize monist ideas, some of which were hinted at in the earlier texts, and they have exerted an important influence on the rest of Hindu and Indian philosophy.

"Principal" Upanishads

The following list includes the eleven "principal" (mukhya) Upanishads commented upon by Shankara, and accepted as shruti by most Hindus. Each is associated with one of the four Vedas (Rigveda (ṚV), Samaveda (SV), White Yajurveda (ŚYV), Black Yajurveda (KYV), Atharvaveda (AV));
1. Aitareya (ṚV)
2. Bṛhadāraṇyaka (ŚYV)
3. Taittirīya (KYV)
4. Chāndogya (SV)
5. Kena (SV)
6. Īṣa (ŚYV)
7. Śvetāśvatara(KYV)
8. Kaṭha (KYV)
9. Muṇḍaka (AV)
10. Māṇḍūkya (AV)
11. Praśna (AV)


Vedanga

The Vedanga ( "member of the Veda") are six auxiliary disciplines for the understanding and tradition of the Vedas.
1. Shiksha phonetics and phonology (sandhi)
2. Chandas meter
3. Vyakarana grammar
4. Nirukta): etymology
5. Jyotisha astrology and astronomy, dealing particularly with the auspicious days for performing sacrifices.
6. Kalpa;ritual

Traditionally, vyākaraṇa and nirukta are shared across all four Vedas, while each veda has its own śikṣā, chandas, kalpa and jyotiṣa. The Vedangas are first mentioned in the Mundaka Upanishad as topics to be observed by students of the Vedas. Later, they developed into independent disciplines, each with its own corpus of Sutras.

The six branches of Vedic science, included under the term Vedanga, are as follows:
1. Shiksha, or Phonetics. The privileged position of representing this subject is assigned to a small treatise ascribed to the great grammarian Panini, viz, the Paniniya shiksha, extant in two different (Rik and Yajus) recensions. But neither this treatise nor any other of the numerous shikshas which have recently come to light can lay claim to any very high age. Scholars, however, usually include under this head certain works, called Pratishakhya, i.e. "belonging to a certain shakha or recension", which deal minutely with the phonetic peculiarities of the several Samhitas, and are of great importance for the textual criticism of the Vedic Samhitas.
2. Chhandas, or Metre. Tradition makes the Chhandas-sutra of Pingala the starting-point of prosody. The Vedic metres, however, occupy but a small part of this treatise, and they are evidently dealt with in a more original manner in the Nidana-sutra of the Samaveda, and in a chapter of the Rik-pratishakhya. For profane prosody, on the other hand, Pingala's treatise is rather valuable, no less than 160 metres being described by him.
3. Vyakarana, or Grammar. Panini's famous grammar is said to be the Vedanga; but it marks the culminating point of grammatical research rather than the beginning, and besides treats chiefly of the post-Vedic language.
4. Nirukta, or Etymology. Yaska's Nirukta is the traditional representative of this subject, and this important work certainly deals entirely with Vedic etymology and explanation. It consists, in the first place, of strings of words in three chapters: (1) synonymous words; (2) such as are purely or chiefly Vedic; and (3) names of deities. These lists are followed by Yaska's commentary, interspersed with numerous illustrations. Yasaka, again, quotes several predecessors in the same branch of science; and it is probable that the original works on this subject consisted merely of lists of words similar to those handed down by him.
5. Jyotisha, or Astronomy. Although astronomical calculations are frequently referred to in older works in connection with the performance of sacrifices, the metrical treatise which has come down to us in two different recensions under the title of Jyotisha, ascribed to one Lagadha, or Lagata, seems indeed to be the oldest existing systematic treatise on astronomical subjects. With the exception of some apparently spurious verses of one of the recensions, it betrays no sign of the Greek influence which shows itself in Hindu astronomical works from about the 3rd century of our era; and its date may therefore be set down as probably not later than the early centuries after Christ.
6. Kalpa, or Ceremonial. Tradition does not single out any special work as the Vedanga in this branch of Vedic science; but the sacrificial practice gave rise to a large number of systematic sutra-manuals for the several classes of priests. The most important of these works have come down to us, and they occupy by far the most prominent place among the literary productions of the sutra-period. The Kalpa-sutras, or rules of ceremonial, are of two kinds: (I) the Srauta-sutras, which are based on the shruti, and teach the performance of the great sacrifices, requiring three sacrificial fires; and (2) the Smrta-sutras, or rules based on the smiti or tradition. The latter class again includes two kinds of treatises: (1) the Grhya-sutras, or domestic rules, treating of ordinary family rites, such as marriage, birth, namegiving, &c., connected with simple offerings in the domestic fire; and (2) the Samayacharika- (or Dharma-) sutras, which treat of customs and temporal duties, and are supposed to have formed the chief sources of the later law-books. Besides, the Shrauta-sutras of the Yajurveda have usually attached to them a set of so-called Shulva-sutras, i.e. rules of the cord, which treat of the measurement by means of cords, and the construction, of different kinds of altars required for sacrifices. These treatises are of special interest as supplying important information regarding the earliest geometrical operations in India. Along with the Sutras may be classed a large number of supplementary treatises, usually called Parishishta (παραλιπομενα), on various subjects connected with the sacred texts and Vedic religion generally.

Supplementary Vedas

The term upaveda ("applied knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works. Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources. The Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas:
• Medicine (Āyurveda), associated with the Rigveda
• Archery (Dhanurveda), associated with the Yajurveda
• Music and sacred dance (Gāndharvaveda), associated with the Samaveda
• Military science (Shastrashastra), associated with the Atharvaveda

Public Administration : Solved Questions 1 ( By Arun joshi,9888933043)

1. Which of the following administrative thinkers has defined administration as “the organization and direction of human and material resources to achieve desired ends” ?
(A) L. D. White
(B) J. M. Pfiffner
(C) J. A. Veig
(D) H. A. Simon
Ans : (B)

2. Which one of the following statements is not correct in respect of New Public Management ?
(A) It has market orientation
(B) It upholds public interest
(C) It advocates managerial autonomy
(D) It focuses on performance appraisal
Ans : (B)

3. ‘Good Governance’ and ‘Participating Civil Society for Development’ were stressed in World Bank Report of—
(A) 1992
(B) 1997
(C) 2000
(D) 2003
Ans : (A)

4. If the administrative authority within a department is vested in a single individual, then that system is known as—
(A) Board
(B) Bureau
(C) Commission
(D) Council
Ans : (B)

5. Globalisation means—
(A) Financial market system is centered in a single state
(B) The growth of a single unified world market
(C) Geographical location of a firm is of utmost importance
(D) Foreign capitalist transactions
Ans : (B)

6. By whom was the ‘Managerial Grid’ developed ?
(A) Blake and White
(B) Blake and Schmidt
(C) Blake and Mouton
(D) Mouton and Shophan
Ans : (C)

7. Who among the following says that public administration includes the operations of only the executive branch of government ?
(A) L. D. White and Luther Gulick
(B) L. D. White
(C) Luther Gulick
(D) W. F. Willoughby
Ans : (C)

8. The concept of the ‘zone of indifference’ is associated with—
(A) Decision-Making
(B) Leadership
(C) Authority
(D) Motivation
Ans : (C)

9. Who has analysed the leadership in terms of ‘circular response’ ?
(A) C. I. Barnard
(B) M. P. Follett
(C) Millet
(D) Taylor
Ans : (B)

10. Simon proposed a new concept of administration based on the methodology of—
(A) Decision-making
(B) Bounded rationality
(C) Logical positivism
(D) Satisfying
Ans : (C)

11. Who wrote the book ‘Towards A New Public Administration : The Minnowbrook Perspective’ ?
(A) Frank Marini
(B) Dwight Waldo
(C) C. J. Charlesworth
(D) J. M. Pfiffner
Ans : (A)

12. Who rejected the principles of administration as ‘myths’ and ‘proverbs’ ?
(A) W. F. Willoughby
(B) Herbert Simon
(C) Chester Barnard
(D) L. D. White
Ans : (B)

13. The classical theory of administration is also known as the—
(A) Historical theory
(B) Mechanistic theory
(C) Locational theory
(D) Human Relations theory
Ans : (B)

14. How many principles of organization were propounded by Henry Fayol ?
(A) 10
(B) 14
(C) 5
(D) 9
Ans : (B)

15. Simon was positively influenced by ideas of—
(A) Terry
(B) Barnard
(C) L. D. White
(D) Henry Fayol
Ans : (B)

16. Negative motivation is based on—
(A) Fear
(B) Reward
(C) Money
(D) Status
Ans : (A)

17. ‘Job loading’ means—
(A) Shifting of an employee from one job to another
(B) Deliberate upgrading of responsibility, scope and challenge
(C) Making the job more interesting
(D) None of the above
Ans : (B)

18. The theory of ‘Prismatic Society’ in Public Administration is based on—
(A) Study of public services in developed and developing countries
(B) Institutional comparision of public administration in developed countries
(C) Structural-functional analysis of public administration in developing countries
(D) Historical studies of public administration in different societies
Ans : (C)

19. Who among the following is an odd thinker ?
(A) Taylor
(B) Maslow
(C) Herzberg
(D) Likert
Ans : (A)

20. Which of the following is not included in ‘hygiene’ factors in the Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation ?
(A) Salary
(B) Working conditions
(C) Company’s policy
(D) Responsibility
Ans : (D)

21. The ‘Gang-Plank’ refers to—
(A) Discipline
(B) Initiative
(C) Equity
(D) Level jumping
Ans : (D)

22. The history of evolution of the Public Administration is generally divided into—
(A) Three phases
(B) Four phases
(C) Five phases
(D) Six phases
Ans : (C)

23. Henry Fayol’s General theory of Administration is applicable at—
(A) Policy management level
(B) Top management level
(C) Middle management level
(D) Workshop management level
Ans : (B)

24. F. W. Taylor, the founding father of Scientific Management movement propounded the theory which was conceived to be a scientific methodology of—
(A) Careful observation
(B) Measurement
(C) Generalisation
(D) All of these
Ans : (D)

25. In which of the following are public and private administrations not common ?
(A) Filing
(B) Managerial techniques
(C) Scope and complexity
(D) Accounting
Ans : (C)

Essay- Child Abuse-A Horrible Reality (By Arun Joshi)

HERE is something that threatens to shatter the picture of the big, happy Indian family. Children are safer at school than at home, says a study on child abuse conducted by the Central government's Ministry of Women and Child Welfare. Every second child in India has faced sexual abuse, and two-thirds of children have been physically abused, the survey estimates. The study was conducted in 13 States and based on interviews with 12,447 children. It is a damning indictment of Indian society's cruelty to its young and most vulnerable. One-fifth of the world's children live in India. Forty-two per cent of India's population is under 18 - that is 440 million people, a number greater than the population of the United States. Despite the fact that India has signed the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and the country has dozens of child welfare schemes, a large portion of the child population remains neglected and exploited. Over half of the children interviewed (53 per cent) had been sexually abused. More boys than girls were harmed. And, 21 per cent of the children reported severe abuse. Children at home and not going to school were more at risk than those attending school. The most affected were children at work (61 per cent reported sexual abuse). Street children (54 per cent) were only slightly more vulnerable than children at home not attending school (53 per cent). More than 70 per cent of children had not told anyone else about their abuse. Of the young adults (aged 18 to 24) who were interviewed, 46 per cent reported that they were sexually abused as children.
Parents and family members were the people most likely to abuse children physically. Around 48 per cent of children said they were physically abused by family members, while 34 per cent were beaten by others. "Considering that the family is supposed to provide a protective atmosphere for the child, especially during the formative years, the high percentage is both surprising and alarming," the study says. But severe abuse was committed mostly by outsiders. Every sixth child faced severe thrashing by people outside the family. Child workers formed one-fifth of the children interviewed and are among the most exploited. Of all child labourers, 56 per cent were employed illegally or in hazardous industries - domestic work; roadside restaurants, or dhabas; construction work, beedi-rolling; lock-making; embroidery; and zari weaving. More than half of child workers laboured seven days a week, without holidays. Of all working children, 23 per cent were domestic workers, of whom 81 per cent were girls. Fourteen per cent of the domestic child workers said they were abused by their employers.
Street children survive in the most inhuman living conditions. The survey found that two of three street children lived with their parents. Only 17 per cent slept in a night shelter. Hygiene conditions were miserable. More than 70 per cent defecated in the open, and 50 per cent did not have access to a municipal tap to bathe. The survey found that they were often not able to meet their basic needs for food. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), one in every four girls and one in every seven boys in the world are sexually abused.THE first survey of its kind — the National Survey on Child Abuse — virtually across the length and breadth of the country has come up with a startling revelation: a majority of children have experienced various forms of violation, physical excesses and sexual abuse. Over 50 per cent had experienced physical abuse such as slapping and corporal punishment from parents and teachers alike; more specifically nearly 65 per cent of schoolchildren, particularly from government schools, reported that they had been beaten by their teachers. Of the many children that were sexually abused, almost 70 per cent stated that they had never reported the matter to anyone. Last but not the least, with every second child admitting to being emotionally abused; it is no exaggeration to say that the survey is possibly the single largest vote of no-confidence against the natural and trusted guardians of the young.
So much so that the much-revered and much-lauded Indian family is under a cloud for not only being one of the main perpetrators of the crime but also for using the smokescreen of the sanctity of the family to hide many ugly realities. More worrisome is the finding that the teacher, often associated with a noble profession, not only proves to be ignoble but also a child-baiter, resembling the infamous Fagin abusing Oliver Twist. Child abuse has become a major public health problem, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). A recent study in India revealed that 50 per cent children suffer from one or another kind of child abuse. Seeing that 40 per cent of our population comprises children/ adolescents, the number of victims can be over 200 millions. The findings are so scary that each home appears unsafe for our young ones. Children who form 42% of the India?s population are at risk on the streets, at their workplace and even inside their own homes. The recent Nithari case has highlighted the plight of children of migrant workers. There has been a 40% increase in intra-state migration in the last 10 years. While migrant do get employment there is no safety net for their children; they get neither education nor healthcare. Single migrant children or children of migrant workers are often not counted anywhere- census or any government scheme. According to the study conducted by NGO Shakti Vahini in 2006, 378 of the 593 districts in India are affected by human trafficking the children being the most affected. They are easy prey for traffickers who lure them from villages with the promise of employment. The street children are perceived as vagrants by the police and with no legal safeguards to protect them violence and exploitation are daily routine for them. India has the largest number of street children in the world. In 2001 it was estimated that there are 100,000 to 125,000 street children each in Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi with 45,000 in Bangalore.
The term child abuse covers a wide range of behavior, from actual physical assault to simple neglect of a child's basic needs. Child abuse is also sometimes called child maltreatment. Infants and preschool children are most likely to suffer deliberately inflicted fractures, burns, and bruises. This is known as the battered-child syndrome. Although the extent of child abuse is difficult to measure, it is recognized a s a major social problem, especially in industrialized nations. It occurs in all income, racial, religious, and ethnic groups and in urban and rural communities. “Child abuse" can be defined as causing or permitting any harmful or offensive contact on a child's body; and, any communication or transaction of any kind which humiliates, shames, or frightens the child. Some child development experts go a bit further, and define child abuse as any act or omission, which fails to nurture or in the upbringing of the children. The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act defines child abuse and neglect as: “at a minimum, any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker, which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse. A child of any age, sex, race, religion, and socioeconomic background can fall victim to child abuse and neglect.
Major types of child abuse are: Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, & child sexual abuse, Neglect.( Physical neglect, educational neglect, emotional neglect)Emotional Abuse: (also known as: verbal abuse, mental abuse, and psychological maltreatment) Includes acts or the failures to act by parents or caretakers that have caused or could cause, serious behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or mental disorders. This can include parents/caretakers using extreme and/or bizarre forms of punishment, such as confinement in a closet or dark room or being tied to a chair for long periods of time or threatening or terrorizing a child. Less severe acts, but no less damaging are belittling or rejecting treatment, using derogatory terms to describe the child, habitual scapegoating or blaming. Neglect: The failure to provide for the child’s basic needs. Neglect can be physical, educational, or emotional. Physical neglect can include not providing adequate food or clothing, appropriate medical care, supervision, or proper weather protection (heat or coats). It may include abandonment. Educational neglect includes failure to provide appropriate schooling or special educational needs, allowing excessive truancies. Psychological neglect includes the lack of any emotional support and love, never attending to the child, spousal abuse, drug and alcohol abuse including allowing the child to participate in drug and alcohol use. Physical Abuse: The inflicting of physical injury upon a child. This may include, burning, hitting, punching, shaking, kicking, beating, or otherwise harming a child. The parent or caretaker may not have intended to hurt the child, the injury is not an accident. It may, however, been the result of over-discipline or physical punishment that is inappropriate to the child’s age. Sexual Abuse: The inappropriate sexual behavior with a child. It includes fondling a child’s genitals, making the child fondle the adult’s genitals, intercourse, incest, rape, sodomy, exhibitionism and sexual exploitation. To be considered child abuse these acts have to be committed by a person responsible for the care of a child (for example a baby-sitter, a parent, or a daycare provider) or related to the child. If a stranger commits these acts, it would be considered sexual assault and handled solely be the police and criminal courts. Commercial or other exploitation of a child refers to use of the child in work or other activities for the benefit of others. This includes, but is not limited to, child labour and child prostitution. These activities are to the detriment of the child’s physical or mental health, education, or spiritual, moral or social-emotional development.
Who are the major culprits? Who are the perverts who indulge in such abusive form of pleasure? The answer is chilling. It has been established by several national and international studies that in a majority of the cases, the abuser is a person whom the child knows and mostly trusts, like a family friend or acquaintance, a domestic help, a relative or in the most tragic and traumatic of the cases a member of the immediate family like the mother, father, brother or grandfather. That is the primary reason why the perpetrators are able to carry on with the abuse for a reasonably long time. Ironically this is also the reason why child abuse is many a time allowed to continue despite getting detected. A study based on interview of 350 Delhi schoolgirls, for instance, found that nearly 63 per cent of them had been abused by a family member. Another study on 1,000 middle and upper class women, revealed that 71 per cent had been abused by people they knew. Studies also disclose that the abuser can belong to either sex, though often men are the offenders. The victim too can be of either sex, though a girl child is more likely to be abused. Most adults who tend to indulge in CSA are often ‘normal’ individuals. Though many offenders might be those who have themselves been victims, but in most cases CSA is simply a result of unbridled lust and easy opportunity. Children are basically trusting, dependent and often taught unquestioned obedience to adult authority. They are also, as studied in most cases, ignorant. Most parent refrain from imparting any kind of sex education to their children. Therefore, the younger victims of CSA might actually not be aware of what the abuser is doing with them. Pain, discomfort, revulsion might be the associations that a child may form in relation to sexual abuse but knowledge of the actual harm or depravity of the act is absent.
In case of older children, the scars that an abuser leaves behind may be more traumatic as they might be aware of the depravity of the act that they are being forced to perform. However they might be helpless to prevent the abuse, as the protective forces might themselves be the exploitative ones.In cases of involvement of close family members, the child’s allegations of misconduct against the same might not be believed because any acknowledgement of such a behavior is likely to lead not only to a familial rift but also to a social scandal. So a child in such circumstances is sacrificed at the altar of family unity and prestige. All allegations of abuse are denied, leaving the child to grapple with the abuser and the related guilt alone.
Child abuse often proves to be a traumatic experience for the victim. To begin with in a society like ours, the victim is often the one who carries the cross of shame. It is the victim who becomes the target of mocking eyes, slandering tongues and a butt of lewd jokes. The stigma of sexual assault and victimisation continues long enough to even hamper the marital prospects of the girl child in question. Thus silence regarding the crime is often the most advised and frequently followed recourse to the problem of CSA. But for the parents of the victims who decide to break the silence and seek punishment for the guilty, the path to legal justice is often long and arduous. For starters, there is callousness and insensitivity of the law enforcement agencies to deal with. Then there are the regular judicial delays. The fact that our legal system is hardly equipped with mechanisms to deal with CSA further complicates the problem. Child abuse can have very serious consequences. The immediate physical effects of abuse or neglect can be relatively minor (bruises or cuts) or severe (broken bones, haemorrhage, or even death). In some cases, the physical effects are temporary; however, the pain and suffering they cause should not be discounted. Abuse and neglect have been shown, in some cases, to cause important regions of the brain to fail to form properly, resulting in impaired physical, mental, and emotional development. In other cases, the stress of chronic abuse causes a “hyper arousal” response by certain areas of the brain, which may result in hyperactivity, sleep disturbances and anxiety as well as increased vulnerability to post-traumatic stress disorder, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and learning and memory difficulties. More than one quarter of the children have some kind of recurring physical or mental health problem e.g. sexually transmitted diseases, heart disease, cancer, chronic lung disease, skeletal fractures and liver disorder.
The immediate emotional effects of abuse and neglect—isolation, fear and inability to trust—can translate into lifelong consequences, including low self-esteem, depression, and relationship difficulties. 80 per cent of young adults who had been abused exhibit many problems, including depression, anxiety, eating disorders and suicidal tendencies. Other psychological and emotional conditions associated with abuse and neglect include panic disorder, dissociative disorders, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder and reactive attachment disorder. Children placed out-of-home care due to abuse or neglect tends to score lower than the general population on measures of cognitive capacity, language development and academic achievement. Children who are abused and neglected by caretakers often do not form secure attachments to them. These early attachment difficulties can lead to later difficulties in relationships with other adults as well as with peers.
The solution to this problem should start from the base i.e. form the home. There are several very basic rules that the parents can follow to protect their children from CSA. First of all, children must be given basic sexual education. They should be taught that any form of sexual advances from adults is wrong. The children should have the confidence that their parents are there with them to protect them. Parents should develop strong communicative relationship with their children. Children should be encouraged to question and discuss their experiences. The parents must make an effort to know their children’s friends and their families. In case the child talks of an experience that sounds anywhere like an abuse, the child should be believed and precautionary or preventive steps must be taken. The parents must let the children express affection in their own terms and not insist upon the child to give hugs and kisses to relatives. The parents must acknowledge that CSA is a problem and remember the old adage ‘forewarned is forearmed.’ This will help reduce the chances of child abuse.
Government must take stringent steps to tackle this problem. India ratified the Child Rights Convention in 1992. However, much more needs to be done by way of embracing its spirit and ensuring that it trickles down into the existing legal framework and government schemes and policies. Further, such a child-centered legal framework needs to ensure a policy of zero tolerance for acts of violation against children while also providing for the effective protection and promotion of the rights of the child. For instance, even while addressing issues of child delinquency under the Juvenile Justice Act, most legal experts recognize the fact, that the Act has never considered the child as a legal entity with a right to self-expression and this has posed a major challenge for child-rights groups.
Our legislators must wake up and put in a serious effort to curb this social evil. There are several laws but the problem is with the implementation. The Central Monitoring Commission which is supposed to monitor crime against children under the Juvenile Justice Act was amended in 2000.This committee has not met even once since the amendment. The Act stated that every police station should have a juvenile police unit but this is still not being followed. The offences against children bill which provides protection against sexual abuse also awaits cabinet nod. According to child rights activists to avoid crimes against children it is important to have community level child protection mechanisms like community watch dogs and committees for child protection, child welfare and anti-trafficking. These will create an interface between communities and state/district mechanisms. These can also monitor vulnerable children in communities and provide a base where people can report and address issues like abuse, exploitation and neglect. Creating spaces within communities and schools so that children can report offences against them can be also done. To overcome lack of awareness about child protection laws the information dissemination is important.
There is an urgent need to take up the problem of child sexual abuse as a larger social issue where the society has a responsibility, to help the victims overcome their trauma and move on with life as normally as possible. The issue has to be tackled at all levels, starting from the child, family, community, school, as well as law enforcers. Not only should the legal and judicial system be geared to handle the issue of child sexual abuse, at a more practical level, an all out effort needs to be made to sensitize the police. They act as the first contact point for people seeking immediate relief. Therefore, they need to be made aware of the vulnerability of children and their responsibility towards them as law enforcers.
Children are the future and it must be protected at every cost keeping in mind that

‘A child is not a vase to be filled, but a fire to be lit’ François Rabelais.

Economy of India(By Arun Joshi,9888933043)

The economy of India is the twelfth largest in the world by market exchange rates and the fourth largest in the world by GDP, measured on a purchasing power parity (PPP) basis. The country was under socialist-based policies for an entire generation from the 1950s until the 1980s. The economy was characterized by extensive regulation, protectionism, and public ownership, leading to pervasive corruption and slow growth. Since 1991, continuing economic liberalization has moved the economy towards a market-based system.

Agriculture is the predominant occupation in India, accounting for about 60% of employment. The service sector makes up a further 28%, and industrial sector around 12%. One estimate says that only one in five job-seekers has had any sort of vocational training. The labor force totals half a billion workers. For output, the agricultural sector accounts for 17% of GDP; the service and industrial sectors make up 54% and 29% respectively. Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes, cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry and fish. Major industries include textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transportation equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery and software design. In 2007, India's GDP was $1.237 trillion, which makes it the twelfth-largest economy in the worldor fourth largest by purchasing power adjusted exchange rates. India's nominal per capita income of $1043 is ranked 136th in the world. In the late 2000s, India's growth has averaged 7.5% a year, increases which will double the average income within a decade. Unemployment rate is 7% (2008 estimate).
Previously a closed economy, India's trade has grown fast. India currently accounts for 1.5% of World trade as of 2007 according to the WTO. According to the World Trade Statistics of the WTO in 2006, India's total merchandise trade (counting exports and imports) was valued at $294 billion in 2006 and India's services trade inclusive of export and import was $143 billion. Thus, India's global economic engagement in 2006 covering both merchandise and services trade was of the order of $437 billion, up by a record 72% from a level of $253 billion in 2004. India's trade has reached a still relatively moderate share 24% of GDP in 2006, up from 6% in 1985.
India's recent economic growth has widened economic inequality across the country. Despite sustained high economic growth rate, approximately 80% of its population lives on less than $2 a day (PPP), more than double the same poverty rate in China. Even though the arrival of Green Revolution brought end to famines in India, 40% of children under the age of three are underweight and a third of all men and women suffer from chronic energy deficiency.

Independence to 1991

Indian economic policy after independence was influenced by the colonial experience (which was seen by Indian leaders as exploitative in nature) and by those leaders' exposure to Fabian socialism. Policy tended towards protectionism, with a strong emphasis on import substitution, industrialization, state intervention in labor and financial markets, a large public sector, business regulation, and central planning. Five-Year Plans of India resembled central planning in the Soviet Union. Steel, mining, machine tools, water, telecommunications, insurance, and electrical plants, among other industries, were effectively nationalized in the mid-1950s. Elaborate licences, regulations and the accompanying red tape, commonly referred to as Licence Raj, were required to set up business in India between 1947 and 1990.

Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister, along with the statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, carried on by Indira Gandhi formulated and oversaw economic policy. They expected favorable outcomes from this strategy, because it involved both public and private sectors and was based on direct and indirect state intervention, rather than the more extreme Soviet-style central command system. The policy of concentrating simultaneously on capital- and technology-intensive heavy industry and subsidizing manual, low-skill cottage industries was criticized by economist Milton Friedman, who thought it would waste capital and labour, and retard the development of small manufacturers.

India's low average growth rate from 1947–80 was derisively referred to as the Hindu rate of growth, because of the unfavourable comparison with growth rates in other Asian countries, especially the "East Asian Tigers".

The Rockefeller Foundation's research in high-yielding varieties of seeds, their introduction after 1965 and the increased use of fertilizers and irrigation are known collectively as the Green Revolution, which provided the increase in production needed to make India self-sufficient in food grains, thus improving agriculture in India. Famine in India, once accepted as inevitable, has not returned since the introduction of Green Revolution crops and the reduction of cash-crops that dominated India during the British Raj.

The economic liberalization in India fix to ongoing reforms in India.

After Independence in 1947, India adhered to socialist policies. The extensive regulation was sarcastically dubbed as the "License Raj", while the slow growth rate was dubbed as the "Hindu rate of growth".

In the 1980s, the Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi initiated some reforms. His government was blocked by politics. In 1991, after IMF had bailed out the bankrupt state, the government of P. V. Narasimha Rao and his finance minister Manmohan Singh started breakthrough reforms. The new policies included opening for international trade and investment, deregulation, initiation of privatization, tax reforms, and inflation-controlling measures. The overall direction of liberalisation has remained the same, irrespective of the ruling party, although no party has yet tried to take on powerful lobbies such as the trade unions and farmers, or contentious issues such as reforming labour laws and reducing agricultural subsidies.
The fruits of liberalization reached their peak in 2007, with India recording its highest GDP growth rate of 9%.With this; India became the second fastest growing major economy in the world, next only to China. An OECD report suggests that the recent high growth rates can double the average income in a decade. The Economist states that "in many ways India counts as one of liberalisation's greatest success stories".

India is still held back by many problems. McKinsey states that removing main obstacles "would free India’s economy to grow as fast as China’s, at 10 percent a year".The World Bank suggests that the most important priorities are public sector reform, infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, easing of labor regulations, reforms in lagging states, and HIV/AIDS. The remaining challenges are demonstrated by the Ease of Doing Business Index, which placed India on the 120th place in 2008, worse than any neighboring country.

Future predictions

In the revised 2007 figures, based on increased and sustaining growth, more inflows into foreign direct investment, Goldman Sachs predicts that "from 2007 to 2020, India’s GDP per capita in US$ terms will quadruple", and that the Indian economy will surpass the United States (in US$) by 2043. Despite high growth rate, the report stated that India would continue to remain a low-income country for several decades but can be a "motor for the world economy" if it fulfills its growth potential. Goldman Sachs has outlined 10 things that it needs to do in order to achieve its potential and grow 40 times by 2050. These are 1.improve governance 2.raise educational achievement 3.increase quality and quantity of universities 4.control inflation 5.introduce a credible fiscal policy 6.liberalize financial markets 7.increase trade with neighbours 8.increase agricultural productivity 9.improve infrastructure and 10.improve environmental quality.

Biosphere reserves(By Arun Joshi,9888933043)

The Indian government has established 15 Biosphere Reserves of India which protect larger areas of natural habitat and often include one or more National Parks and/or preserves, along buffer zones that are open to some economic uses. Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected region, but also to the human communities who inhabit these regions, and their ways of life. The 15 Bio-reserves in India are-
1. Sunderbans
2. Gulf of Mannar
3. The Nilgiris
4. Nanda Devi
5. Nokrek
6. Great Nicobar
7. Manas
8. Simlipal
9. Dihang Dibang
10. Dibru Saikhowa
11. Agasthyamalai
12. Kanchenjunga
13. Pachmarhi
14. Achanakmar-Amarkantak
15. Kachchh
Seven of the fifteen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme list.
 Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
 Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
 Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve
 Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
 Simlipal Biosphere Reserve
 Nokrek Biosphere Reserve
 Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve

Battles and Wars in India( By Arun Joshi,Sri- krishna institute,9888933043)

Battle of Hydaspes—In 326 B.C. when Alexander, the great had to turn back from Hydaspes (Beas) when his troops refused to march into India against the Nanda Empire.

Battle of Kalinga—It was fought in 361 B.C. between Ashoka, the great and the king of Kalinga. The war resulted in considerable loss of life and brought misery and suffering to the people. Its impression on Ashoka was so great that he not only turned a Buddhist, but renounced war and violence.

1st Battle of Tarain (1191 A.D.)—Prithvi Raj defeated Mohd. Gauri.

2nd Battle of Tarain (1192 A.D.)—Mohd. Gauri defeated Prithvi Raj and paved the way for Muslim rule in India.

First Battle of Panipat (1526)—Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi. This laid the foundation of Mughal rule in India.

Second Battle of Panipat (1556)—Akbar defeated Hemu. It ended the Afgan Rule and the way was cleared for Mughal rule.

Battle of Talikota (1565)—The united alliance of Bijapur, Bidar, Ahmednagar and Golkunda under Hussain Nizam Shah defeated Ram Raja of Vijaynagar. It sealed the fate of the Hindu Kingdom of Vijaynagar.

Battle of Haldighati (1576)—Akbar defeated Rana Pratap. The latter had to take refuge in remote fortresses.

Battle of Plassey (1757)—The British under Lord Clive defeated Sirajuddaulah. It laid foundation of the British Rule in India.

Third Battle of Panipat (1761)—Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated the Marahattas. The Marahatta power suffered an irreparable loss.

Battle of Buxer (1764)—The British under Sir Hector Munro defeated the Muslim army under three Mohammadan leaders : Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-daulha and Shah Alam II. The battle made the British Supreme in India.

The First Sikh War (1845)—The Sikh Army crossed Sutlej in 1845 at which the East India Company declared war. British occupied Lahore and forced the Sikhs to accept humiliating terms of peace.

The Second Sikh War (1849)—A drawn battle was fought between the English and the Sikhs at Chelianwala in which the English appeared to have suffered heavy losses.

Indo-Pak War (1965)—An indecisive war between India and Pakistan. It led to ‘Taskent Pact’ between the two countries.

Indo-Pak War (1971)—Indian forces in joint command with Bangladesh Army accepted the surrender of the Pak Army in Bangladesh. War in the western sector came to an end as a result of cease-fire on Dec. 17. Bangladesh was liberated.

Kargil War (1999)—Indian forces scored grand victory over Pakistani army and Pak supported mercenaries in a conflict in the Kargil sector of Jammu & Kashmir. The operation was named ‘Operation Vijaya.’ The Indian forces cleared Kargil of all Pakistani elements.

Great Sikh Gurus- An Introduction ( By Arun joshi,Sri-Krishna institute,9888933043)

GURU NANAKDEV JI

Guru Nanak Dev was born in 1469 A.D. at Rai-Bhoe DI Taiwandi, Distt. Shekhu Pura, the place which is called Nankana Sahib or Gurudwara Janam Asthan. This sacred place is in Pakistan now-a-days. His mother’s name was Tripta and father’s name was Mehta Kalu. Guru was founder of Sikh religion. There was tyranny in the society, when Guru Nanak took birth. He was sent to a Pandit for studies at the age of 7, but Pandit was stunned on hearing his views.
At Sultan Pur Lodhi, he went to a rivulet (Bein), Where he got enlightenment. For the welfare of the world he took four voyages in all the four directions and preached truth to the people. Hindus called him Guru and Muslims called him Pir. He gave his throne to Bhai Lahina. who was known by the name of Guru Angad Dev later on. This great saint passed away on 7.11.1539. The earliest biographical sources on the life of Guru Nanak recognized today are the Janamsākhīs (life accounts) and the vārs (expounding verses) of the scribe Bhai Gurdas. The most popular Janamsākhī were allegedly written by a close companion of the Guru, Bhai Bala. However, the writing style and language employed have left scholars such as Max Arthur Macauliffe certain that they were composed after his death.

GURU ANGAD DEV JI

This great man was born on 31st March, 1504 at Harike village in Ferozepur District. His childhood name was Lahina. His father Ferumal was a general merchant and was Kshatriya by caste. He was married to Bibi Kheevi daughter of Sh. Devi Chand at the age of 15. He had two Sons Datu and Dassu and two daughters Amro and Anokhi.
Guru Nanak Dev tested him and appointed him his successor. He gave one coconut and five paisa to Angad Dev and bowed before him. In this way, Guru Angad Dev became second Guru of Sikhs. In 1538, Guru Nanak Dev Ji chose Lehna, his disciple, as a successor to the Guruship rather than one of his sons. Bhai Lehna was given the name Angad and designated Guru Angad Dev, becoming the second guru of the Sikhs. He continued the work started by the first Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak Dev Ji. He passed away 0n 28th march 1552 at Amritsar.

GURU AMAR DAS JI

Guru Amar Das was born at village Sabarke, distt. Amritsar on 5th May, 1479 in Baba Tej Bhan’s home. He was Kashatriya by caste. He had two sons Mohan and Mohri and two daughters Bibi Bhani and Bibi Dani.
He used to lead a pious life. Finally he come to the shelter of Guru Angad Dev and served him devotedly. Guru Angad Dev was highly influenced by him and finally gave him his throne. He was third Guru of Sikhs on 26 March 1552.
• Required visitors to Gurdwaras take Langar (Free Blessed Food) before seeing the Guru. "First Pangat then Sangat"
• Created the prayer ritual called Anand Sahib, which is one of the Five Banis recited daily
• Established the city of Goindval on the banks of river Bias in 1552.
• Contributed 907 hymns to the Sri Guru Granth Sahib!
• Visited and assigned Sikh missionaries to different parts of India.
• Divided the Sikh Sangat area into 22 branches called Manjis and appointed a local Sikh preacher for each location .
This great saint passed away on 1 sept 1554.

GURU RAM DAS JI

Guru Ram Das was born in 1534 of Choona Mandi situated at Lahore. He was also Kashtarya by Caste. As his parents passed away soon, his grand mother brought him up. His childhood name was Jetha ii.
He went to Goindwal to Sh. Guru Amar Das. Guru Amar Das and his wife were attracted towards charming personality of Jetha Ji. So, they married their younger daughter Bhani to him. Three sons Pirthi Chand, Mohan Dass and Arjun Dev were born to him. Guru Amar Das appointed him his successor. Thus Jetha Ji became Guru Ram Das, 4th Guru of Sikhs on 30 august 1574. He passed away on I sept. 1581.

GURU ARJUN DEV JI

This great man was born on 15th April 1563 at Goindwal, Amritsar in Guru Ram Das’s house to Bibi Bhani. He was brought up by his maternal grand-father Guru Amar Das. He got education in Hindi, Sanskrit and Persian.
Guru Arjun Dev’s greatest work was editing of Guru Granth Sahib. He got the foundation of Harmandir Sahib laid atAmritsar by a Muslim Faqir Sam Mian Mir. He also started Daswand and Masand custom. His most famous work is ‘Sukhmani Sahib’. He completed the construction of Amritsar and founded other cities such as Taran Taran and Kartarpur. He constructed a Baoli at Lahore. The most important work of Arjan Dev was the compilation of Adi Granth. He collected all the work of the first four Gurus and dictated it in the form of verses in 1604. He appointed Baba Budha Ji, who was a companion of Guru Nanak, and an associate of each of the subsequent Guru as the chief priest of the Golden Temple. He placed the Adi Granth on the Gaddi (throne) reserved for him, preferring to sit among his disciples.He was martyred on 30th May, 1606 by making him sit on hot plate by jahangir, because he supported his rebel son khusrau mirza.

GURU HARGOBIND JI

Guru Hargobind was born on 14th June, 1596 at Wadali near Amritsar. At the age of 11, he had to lead Sikhs because his father had been martyred. He wore two swords of Miri and Piri and gave a new policy to sikh religion. His relations with Mughals went on changing sometimes friendly and sometimes tense. He had friendly relations with Mughals, but sometimes he had to fight against them. He was 6th Guru of Sikhs. Jahangir could not tolerate the armed policy of Har Gobind and consequently imprisoned him, and ultimately released him. The relations between the Guru and Jahangir became friendly and continued to remain so.
During the reign of Shah Jahan, relations became bitter again, for Shah Jahan was intolerant. He destroyed the Sikh baoli at Lahore. The quarrels which originally started over hawks or horses between the Mughal officials and the Sikhs subsequently led to risings on a large scale and were responsible for the deaths of thousands of persons on both sides. Battles were fought at Amritsar, Kartarpur and elsewhere. He defeated the Imperial troops near Amritsar. Guru Har Gobind breathed his last, peacefully, at Kiratpur Rupnagar, Punjab on 2 March 1644.
• Transformed the Sikh fraternity by introducing martial arts and weapons for the defence of the masses following his father's martyrdom.
• Militarised the Sikh movement – carried two swords of Miri and Piri.
• Built the Akal Takht in 1608 – which is now one of five Takhts (Seats of Power) of the Sikhs.
• Founded the city of Kiratpur in District Jalandhar, Punjab.
• He was imprisoned in the fort of Gwalior for one year and on release insisted that 52 fellow prisoners be freed as well. To mark this occasion the Sikhs celebrate Bandi Chhor Divas.
• The first Guru to engage in warfare.
• Fought four battles against the Mughal rulers.
• The strongest and the biggest Guru physically.
• The city Hargobindpur, in Majha region of Punjab, is named after him, which he won over from Mughals after defeating them in a battle.

GURU HAR RAI JI

He was born at Kiratpur on 30th January, 1630. His father Baba Gurdita was eldest son of Guru Hargobind. Guru Hargobind had five sons - Baba Gurdita, Suraj Mal, Anirai, Baba Atal and Teg Bahadur. In 1643, feeling his time near, he appointed Gurdita’s Younger son Har Rai his successor. He was 7th Guru of sikhs. Guru Har Rai married Mata Kishan Kaur (sometimes also referred to as mata Sulakhni) the daughter of Sri Daya Ram of Anoopshahr (Bulandshahr) in Uttar Pradesh .Guru Har Rai had one daughter and two sons: Baba Ram Rai and Sri Har Krishan. Just before his death at age 31, Guru Har Rai passed the Gaddi of Nanak on to his younger son, the five year old—Guru Har Krishan.he passed away on 6 oct.1661.

GURU HAR KRISHAN JI

Guru Har Krishan was born on 7th july 1656 at Kiratpur Sahib, Rupnagar, Punjab.His mother’s name was Krishan Kaur and his father was Guru Har Rai. Guru Har Rai was against giving throne of Guruship to his eldest son Ram Rai, because he had showed cowardice in Mughal Court. So, he devoid Ram Rai’s right from Guruship and appointed his younger son Har Krishan his successor. Guru Har Knishan became 8th Guru of sikhs on 7 oct.1661. Ram Rai complained to the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Delhi that he had been passed over because of his loyalty to the emperor. He also claimed that he had not received his due share of his father's property. Ram Rai knew that before his death Har Rai had publicly instructed Har Krishan never to meet Aurengzeb. Ram Rai hoped if Har Krishan met the emperor, it would be against his father's wishes and the Sikhs would be displeased with their Guru. On the other hand, if Aurangzeb summoned Har Krishan to Delhi, and he refused to go, then Aurangzeb would send troops to compel him. Aurangzeb favored Ram Rai, and summoned Har Krishan to Delhi. The Sikhs were very apprehensive about young Har Krishan travelling to Delhi and appearing at court. To calm these worries, Aurangzeb sent Mirza Raja Jai Singh I to escort the Guru to Delhi. Mirza Raja Jai Singh I was a high court official and a Rajput ruler known for his devotion to the Sikh Gurus. When they reached Delhi, Har Krishan and his party were the guests of Raja Jai Singh. Every day, large numbers of Sikh devotees flocked to see the Guru. A smallpox epidemic was then raging in Delhi. Har Krishan helped to heal many sick people. Coming in contact with so many people every day, he too was infected and taken seriously ill. On March 30, 1664, Har Krishan decided to name his successor. He called for five coins and a coconut. He took them, and being too weak to move, waved his hand three times in the air, and said "Baba Bakala." Har Krishan then suddenly died at the age of eight.
One of the historic gurdwaras in India, the Bangla Sahib in Delhi was built on the site where Guru Har Krishan helped the sick, and where he also died himself of smallpox.

GURU TEG BAIHADUR JI

Guru Teg Bahadur was born in April, 1621 at Guru De Mahal at Amritsar. He was Youngest son of 6th Guru of Sikhs Guru Hargobind. At the time of his death, Guru Har Krishan caught five paisa and a coconut in his hands and said Baba Bakala, bowed his head and passed away. -
Bhai Makhan Shah Lubana, who was devotee to Gurus, his ship was caught in a tempest at sea. He prayed if his ship was saved, he would give 500 gold coins to Guru, His ship was saved. Makhan Shah Lubana came to Baba Bakala. He saw that many hypocrites were sitting and posing as Gurus. Makhan Shah started placing two gold coins before every Guru and bowed his head. They accepted gold coins. On asking some people he came to know that, Teg Bahadur was worshipping in an underground eel!. Makhan Shah placed two gold coins before him and bowed his head. Smiling Guru Teg Bahadur said that Bhai Makhan Shah You had promised 500 gold coins. Hearing so, Bhai Makhan Shah climbed the roof-top and shouted, “Guru Ladho Re! Guru Ladho Re !“ In this way real Guru was found. He became guru of Sikhism on 20march 1665. 1665A.D. a child Gobind Rai was born to him.
One day some Kashmiri Brahamins came to him and told him that officer of Mughal emperor was compelling them to change religion. Guru told that they could be saved from tyranny if some great man sacrificed his life. Gobind Rai said, “Father! Who is greater than you who can sacrifice his life at this time?”
Mughal emperor asked Guru either to show some miracle or become Muslim or get martyrdom. He was arrested, along with some of his followers, Bhai Dayala, Bhai Mati Das and Bhai Sati Das by Nur Muhammad Khan of the Rupnagar police post at the village Malikhpur Rangharan, in Ghanaula Parganah, and sent to Sirhind the following day. The Faujdar (Governor) of Sirhind, Dilawar Khan, ordered him to be detained in Bassi Pathana and reported the news to Delhi. His arrest was made in July 1675 and he was kept in custody for over three months. He was then cast in an iron cage and taken to Delhi in November 1675. The Guru was put in chains and ordered to be tortured until he would accept Islam. When he could not be persuaded to abandon his faith to save himself from persecution, he was asked to perform some miracles to prove his divinity. On his refusal, Guru Tegh Bahadur was beheaded in public at Chandni Chowk on 11 November 1675. Guru Ji is also known as "Hind Di Chadar" i.e. to save Hinduism, Guru Ji gave his life. The Gurdwara Sis Ganj Sahib in Chandni Chowk, Delhi, was built over where the Guru was beheaded, and Gurdwara Rakab Ganj Sahib, also in Delhi, is built on the site of the residence of Lakhi Shah Vanjara, a disciple of the Guru, who burnt his house in order to cremate the Guru's body.

GURU GOBIND SINGH JI

Guru Gobind Singh was 10th and last human Guru of Sikh. He was born in 1666 A.D. at Patna. He was only 9 years, when his father was martyred.
He created Khalsa at Anandpur Sahib on Baisakhi day in 1699 and gave nectar to sikhs. Guru fought many battles with Hill-Kings. His two elder Sons were killed in battle of Chamkaur and two younger sons were killed by bricking them into foundations of a wall at fatehgarh sahib.

Geography of India ( By Arun Joshi,Sri-Krishna institute,9888933043)

Continent: Asia

Region: Southern Asia,Indian subcontinent

Coordinates: 20°00'N 77°00' E

Area: Ranked 7th
3,287,590 km²
1,269,345.60 miles²
90.44% land
9.56% water

Coastline: 7,516 km (4,670.23 miles)

Borders Total land borders:
14,103 km (8,763 miles)
Bangladesh:
4,053 km (2,520 miles)
Bhutan:
605 km (376 miles)
Myanmar:
1,463 km (909 miles)
China (PRC):
3,380 km (2,100 miles)
Nepal:
1,690 km (1,050 miles)
Pakistan:
2,912 km (1,809 miles)

Highest point:
Kanchenjunga8,598 m (28,209 ft)

Lowest point:
Kuttanad,−2.2 m (−7.2 ft)

Longest river: Ganges-Brahmaputra

Largest lake: Chilka Lake

The geography of India is extremely diverse, with landscape ranging from snow-capped mountain ranges to deserts, plains, rain forests, hills and plateaus. India comprises most of the Indian subcontinent situated on the Indian Plate, the northerly portion of the Indo-Australian Plate. Having a coastline of over 7,000 km (4,300 miles), most of India lies on a peninsula in southern Asia that protrudes into the Indian Ocean. India is bounded in the southwest by the Arabian Sea and in the southeast by the Bay of Bengal.
The fertile Indo-Gangetic plain occupies most of northern, central and eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern India. To the west of the country is the Thar Desert, which consists of a mix of rocky and sandy desert. India's east and northeastern border consists of the high Himalayan range. The highest point in India is disputed due to a territorial dispute with Pakistan; according to India's claim, the highest point (located in the disputed Kashmir territory) is K2, at 8,611 m (28,251 feet). The highest point in undisputed Indian territory is Kangchenjunga, at 8,598 m (28,208 feet). Climate ranges from equatorial in the far south, to tundra in the Himalayan altitudes.
India is bordered by Pakistan, the People's Republic of China, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and Afghanistan. Sri Lanka and the Maldives are island nations to the south of India. Politically, India is divided into 28 states, six federally administered union territories and a national capital territory. The political divisions generally follow linguistic and ethnic boundaries rather than geographic transitions.

Location and extent

India lies to the north of the equator between 8 degree 4 minutes and 37 degree 6 minutes north latitude and 68 degrees 7 minutes and 97 degrees 25 minutes east longitude. It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total land area of 3,287,590 km² (1,269,219 square miles). India measures 3,214 km (1,997 miles) from north to south and 2,933 km (1,822 miles) from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15,200 km (9,445 miles) and a coastline of 7,516.5 km (4,670.5 miles). The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea are parts of India.

India is bounded on the southwest by the Arabian Sea and on the southeast by the Bay of Bengal. On the north, northeast, and northwest are the Himalayas. Kanyakumari constitutes the southern tip of the Indian peninsula, which narrows before ending in the Indian Ocean.
Political geography
India is divided into 28 states (which are further subdivided into districts), six union territories and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. States have their own elected government, while Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union government.

States and territories of India States:
1. Andhra Pradesh
2. Arunachal Pradesh
3. Assam
4. Bihar
5. Chhattisgarh
6. Goa
7. Gujarat
8. Haryana
9. Himachal Pradesh
10. Jammu and Kashmir
11. Jharkhand
12. Karnataka
13. Kerala
14. Madhya Pradesh
15. Maharashtra
16. Manipur
17. Meghalaya
18. Mizoram
19. Nagaland
20. Orissa
21. Punjab
22. Rajasthan
23. Sikkim
24. Tamil Nadu
25. Tripura
26. Uttarakhand
27. Uttar Pradesh
28. West Bengal

Union Territories:
A. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
B. Chandigarh
C. Dadra and Nagar Haveli
D. Daman and Diu
E. Lakshadweep
F. Puducherry
G. National Capital Territory of Delhi

The state of Jammu and Kashmir is claimed by India but disputed by Pakistan and China, who administer parts of the territory. The state of Arunachal Pradesh is claimed by China but administered by India.

Geographical regions

India is divided into seven geographic regions. They are
1. The northern mountains including the Himalayas and the northeast mountain ranges.
2. Indo-Gangetic plains
3. Thar Desert
4. Central Highlands and Deccan Plateau
5. East Coast
6. West Coast
7. Bordering seas and islands

Mountains

A great arc of mountains, composed of the Himalaya, Hindu Kush, and Patkai ranges, define the Indian subcontinent. These mountains were formed by the ongoing tectonic collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate which started some 50 million years ago. These mountain ranges are home to some of the tallest mountains in the world and provide a natural barrier against the cold polar winds. They also facilitate the monsoons that drive climate in India. The protection and climatic control they have provided has been a geographical quality that has assisted India's position as a Great power. The numerous rivers that originate in these mountains provide water to the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains. These mountains are recognised by biogeographers as the boundary between two of the earth's great ecozones; the temperate Palearctic that covers most of Eurasia, and the tropical and subtropical Indomalaya ecozone that includes the Indian subcontinent and extend into Southeast Asia and Indonesia. Historically, these ranges have served as barriers to invaders.

India has seven major mountain ranges having peaks of over 1,000 m (3,300 feet). The Himalayas are the only mountain ranges to have snow-capped peaks. These ranges are:
1. Aravalli Range
2. Eastern Ghats
3. Himalayas
4. Patkai
5. Vindhya Range
6. Sahyadri or Western Ghats
7. Satpuras
8. Karakoram

The Himalaya mountain range is the world's highest mountain range. They form India's north-eastern border, separating it from the rest of Asia. The Himalayas are one of the world's youngest mountain ranges, and extend almost uninterrupted for a distance of 2,500 km (1,550 miles), covering an area of 500,000 km² (193,000 square miles).

The Himalayas extend from the state of Jammu and Kashmir in the west to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east. These states along with Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, and Sikkim lie mostly in the Himalayan region. Some of the Himalayan peaks range over 7,000 m (23,000 feet) and the snow line ranges between 6,000 m (19,600 feet) in Sikkim to around 3,000 m (9,850 feet) in Kashmir. Kangchenjunga, which lies in Sikkim, is the highest point in the country's territory (undisputed). Most peaks in the Himalayas remain snowbound throughout the year.

The Shiwalik, or lower Himalaya, consists of smaller hills towards the Indian side. Most of the rock formations are young and highly unstable, with landslides being a regular phenomenon during the rainy season. Many of India's hill stations are located on this range. The climate varies from sub tropical in the foothills to tundra at the higher elevations of these mountain ranges.

The mountains on India's eastern border with Myanmar are called as the Patkai or the Purvanchal. They were created by the same tectonic processes that resulted in the formation of the Himalaya. The features of the Patkai ranges are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: The Patkai-Bum, the Garo-Khasi-Jaintia, and the Lushai hills. The Garo-Khasi range is in the Indian state of Meghalaya. The climate ranges from temperate to alpine due to altitude. Cherrapunji, which lies on the windward side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall.

The Vindhya range runs across most of central India, covering a distance of 1,050 km (652 miles). The average elevation of these hills is 300 m (1,000 feet). They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created due to the weathering of the ancient Aravalli mountains. It geographically separates northern India from southern India. The western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with the state of Madhya Pradesh, and the range runs east and north nearly to the Ganges River at Mirzapur.

The Satpura Range is a range of hills in central India. It begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast, then runs east through Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and ends in the state of Chhattisgarh. It extends for a distance of 900 km with many of its peaks rising above 1000 m (3,300 feet). It is angular in shape, with its vertex at Ratnapuri and the two sides being parallel to the Tapti and Narmada river. It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north, and these two east-west ranges divide the Indo-Gangetic plain of northern India from the Deccan Plateau lying in the south. The Narmada runs in the depression between the Satpura and Vindhya ranges, and drains the northern slope of the Satpura range, running west towards the Arabian Sea.

The Aravalli range in Rajasthan.

The Aravalli Range is the oldest mountain range in India, running from northeast to southwest across Rajasthan in western India, extending approximately 500 km (310 miles). The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana, ending near Delhi. The highest peak is Mount Abu, rising to 1,722 m (5,653 feet), lying near the southwestern extremity of the range, close to the border with Gujarat. The city of Ajmer with its lake lies on the southern slope of the range in Rajasthan. The Aravalli Range is the eroded stub of an ancient folded mountain system that was once snow-capped. The range rose in a Precambrian event called the Aravalli-Delhi orogen. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian craton, the Marwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast. The present Aravalli range is only a remnant of the gigantic system that existed in prehistoric times with several of its sum mits rising above the snow line and nourishing glaciers of stupendous magnitude which in turn fed many great rivers.

Elevated regions in India.

The Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountains run along the western edge of India's Deccan Plateau, and separate the Deccan plateau from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea. The range starts south of the Tapti River near the border of Gujarat and Maharashtra, and runs approximately 1,600 km (1,000 miles) through the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, almost to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. The average elevation is around 1,000 m with the higher peaks occurring in the southern section in Nilgiris and in Kerala. The Anai Mudi in the Cardamom Hills at 2,695 m (8,841 feet) in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats.

The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains, which have been eroded and cut through by the four major rivers of southern India, the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri. These mountain ranges extend from West Bengal in the north, through Orissa and Andhra Pradesh to Tamil Nadu in the south. They run parallel to the Bay of Bengal and are not as tall as the Western Ghats, though some of its peaks are over 1000 m in height.

The Eastern and Western Ghats meet at the Nilgiri or Malay knot in Tamil Nadu. The Anai Mudi in the Cardamom Hills at 2,695 m (8,841 feet) in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats. The Nilgiris are considered to be a part of the Western Ghats.

Indo-Gangetic plain

The Indo-Gangetic plains are large floodplains of the Indus and the Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east, draining the states of Punjab, Haryana, eastern Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. The plains encompass an area of 700,000 km² (270,000 mile²) and vary in width through their length by several hundred kilometres. Major rivers that form a part of this system are the Ganga (Ganges) and Indus River along with their tributaries; Beas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej and Chenab.

The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat and mostly treeless, making it conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water sources. The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. Crops grown on the Indo-Gangetic Plain are primarily rice and wheat, grown in rotation. Other crops include maize, sugarcane and cotton. Also known as the Great Plains, the Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas. Water bodies of India are Indian ocean, Arabian sea, bay of bengal.

The Thar Desert (also known as the Great Indian Desert) is a hot desert that forms a significant portion of western India. Spread over four states in India – Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat it covers an area of 208,110 km² (80,350 mile²). The desert continues into Pakistan as the Cholistan Desert. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan, covering 61% of its geographic area. Most of the desert is rocky, with a small part of the extreme west of the desert being sandy. The origin of the Thar Desert is uncertain. Some geologists consider it to be 4,000 to 10,000 years old, whereas others state that aridity began in this region much earlier. The area is characterised by extreme temperatures of above 45 °C (113 °F) in summer to below freezing in winters. Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120 mm (4.72 inches) in the extreme west to 375 mm (14.75 inches) eastward. The lack of rainfall is mainly due to the unique position of the desert with respect to the Aravalli range.

The desert lies in the rain shadow area of the Bay of Bengal arm of the southwest monsoon. The parallel nature of the range to the Arabian Sea arm also means that the desert does not receive much rainfall.
The desert can be divided into two regions, the great Desert and the little desert. The great Desert extends northwards from the edge of the Rann of Kutch region of Gujarat. The little desert extends from the River Luni between the towns of Jodhpur and Jaisalmer, up to the northern areas. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary according to the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier and may have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum. Due to the low population density, the effect of the population on the environment is relatively less compared to the rest of India.

The Central Highlands are composed of three main plateaus – the Malwa Plateau in the west, the Deccan Plateau in the south, (covering most of the Indian peninsula); and the Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand towards the east.

The Deccan plateau is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats. The Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 million km² (735,000 mile²). It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from 300 to 600 m (1,000 to 2,000 feet).
The name Deccan comes from the Sanskrit word dakshina, which means "the south". The plateau slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several peninsular rivers such as the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri and the Narmada. This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both Ghats. Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest scattered with small regions of deciduous broadleaf forest. Climate ranges from hot summers to mild winters.

The Chota Nagpur Plateau is a plateau in eastern India, which covers much of Jharkhand state as well as adjacent parts of Orissa, Bihar, and Chhattisgarh.
The total area of Chota Nagpur Plateau is approximately 65,000 km² (25,000 mile²). The Chota Nagpur Plateau is made up of three smaller plateaus, the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. The Ranchi plateau is the largest of the plateaus, with an average elevation of 700 m (2,300 feet). Much of the plateau is forested, covered by the Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests. The plateau is famous for its vast reserves of ores and coal. Besides the Great Indian peninsula, the Kathiawar Peninsula in Gujarat is another large peninsula of India.

The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the north. Deltas of many of India's rivers form a major portion of these plains. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri and Krishna rivers drain these plains. The region receives both the Northeast and Southwest monsoon rains with its annual rainfall averaging between 1,000 mm (40 in) and 3,000 mm (120 in). The width of the plains varies between 100 to 130 km (62 to 80 miles).
The plains are divided into six regions: The Mahanadi delta; the southern Andhra Pradesh plain; the Krishna Godavari deltas; the Kanyakumari coast; Coromandel Coast and sandy littoral.

The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. The strip begins in Gujarat in the north and extends across the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. The plains are narrow, and range from 50 to 100 km (30 to 60 miles) in width. Small rivers and numerous backwaters inundate the region. The rivers, which originate in the Western Ghats, are fast flowing and are mostly perennial. The fast flowing nature of the rivers results in the formation of estuaries rather than deltas. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapi, Narmada, Mandovi and Zuari.

The coast is divided into three regions. The northern region of Maharashtra and Goa is known as the Konkan Coast, the central region of Karnataka is known as the Kanara Coast and the southern coastline of Kerala is known as the Malabar Coast. Vegetation in this region is mostly deciduous. The Malabar Coast has its own unique ecoregion known as the Malabar Coast moist forests.

India has two major offshore island possessions: the Lakshadweep islands and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Both these island groups are administered by the Union government of India as Union Territories. The Lakshadweep islands lie 200 to 300 km (124 to 186 miles) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian Sea. It consists of twelve coral atolls, three coral reefs, and five banks. Ten of these islands are inhabited.
The Andaman and Nicobar island chain lies in the Bay of Bengal near the Myanmar coast. It is located 950 km (590 miles) from Kolkata (Calcutta) and 193 km (120 miles) from Cape Negrais in Myanmar. The territory consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands. The Andaman islands consist of 204 islands having a total length of 352 km (220 miles). The Nicobar Islands, which lie south of the Andamans, consists of twenty-two islands with a total area of 1,841 km² (710 mile²). The highest point is Mount Thullier at 642 m (2,140 feet). Indira Point, India's southernmost land point is situated in the Nicobar islands, and lies just 189 km (117 miles) from the Indonesian island of Sumatra to the southeast.
Significant islands just off the Indian coast include Diu, a former Portuguese exclave; Majuli, Asia's largest freshwater island; Salcette Island, India's most populous island, on which Mumbai (Bombay) city is located; Elephanta in Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota barrier island in Andhra Pradesh.

PRESIDENT OF INDIA(By Arun Joshi,Sri-Krishna Institute,9888933043)

Article 79 states that the Union Parliament shall consist of the President and the two Houses - Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. Here our Constitution departs from the theory of separation of power (as given by Montesquieu). The President of India is often regarded as the conscience-keeper of the nation by adding a sobering effect to the democratic fervor of our political system. The President of India is neither a real executive like the US President nor only a ceremonial head like the British monarch. Article 53 vests the executive powers of the Union in the President.
That is, all executive decisions of the Union are taken in the name of the President. These executive decisions, which are administrative in nature, are carried out by the different ministries and departments of the Government.
The President of India is the head of state and first citizen of India, as well as the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces. Despite Article 53 of the Constitution stating the President can exercise their powers directly, with few exceptions, all of the authority vested in the President is in practice exercised by the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister.

The President is elected by the elected members of the Parliament of India (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) as well as of the state legislatures (Vidhan Sabhas), and serves for a term of five years. Incumbents are permitted to stand for re-election. A formula is used to allocate votes so there is a balance between the population of each state and the number of votes assembly members from a state can cast, and to give an equal balance between State Assembly members and National Parliament members. If no candidate receives a majority of votes there is a system by which losing candidates are eliminated from the contest and votes for them transferred to other candidates, until one gains a majority. The Vice-President is elected by a direct vote of all members (elected and nominated) of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
The president of India resides in an estate in New Delhi known as the Rashtrapati Bhavan. The presidential retreat is The Retreat in Chharabra, Shimla and Rashtrapati Nilayam (President's Place) in Hyderabad.

The 12th President of India is Her Excellency Pratibha Devisingh Patil, the first woman to serve in the office, who was sworn in on 25 July 2007
India became formally independent from the United Kingdom on 15 August 1947 .
With the Constitution of India coming into effect on 26 January, 1950, under Article 52 , Part V, the office of the President of India was established, with Dr. Rajendra Prasad as its first occupant.

Powers and Duties

Legislative powers

The President summons both houses of the Parliament and prorogues them. He or she can even dissolve the Lok Sabha. These powers are formal, and by convention, the President uses these powers according to the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister.
They inaugurate the Parliament by addressing it after the general elections and also at the beginning of the first session each year. Their address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government.
A bill that the Parliament has passed can become a law only after the President gives his/her assent to it. The President can return a bill to the Parliament, if it is not a money bill, for reconsideration. However, if the Parliament sends it back to them for the second time, the President is obliged to assent to it.
When the Parliament is not in session and the government considers it necessary to have a law, then the President can promulgate ordinances. These ordinances are submitted to the Parliament at its next session. They remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the Parliament is convened unless approved by it earlier.

Article 52 Executive powers

The Constitution vests in the President of India all the executive powers of the Central Government. The President appoints the Prime Minister the person most likely to command the support of the majority in the Lok Sabha (usually the leader of the majority party or coalition). The President then appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios to them on the advice of the Prime Minister.
The Council of Ministers remains in power during the 'pleasure' of the President. In practice, however, the Council of Ministers must retain the support of the Lok Sabha. If a President were to dismiss the Council of Ministers on his or her own initiative, it might trigger a constitutional crisis. Thus, in practice, the Council of Ministers cannot be dismissed as long as it commands the support of a majority in the Lok Sabha.

The President is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. These include:
• Governors of States
• The Chief Justice, other judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts of India.
• The Attorney General
• The Comptroller and Auditor General
• The Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners
• The Chairman and other Members of the Union Public Service Commission
• Ambassadors and High Commissioners to other countries.
The President also receives the credentials of Ambassadors and High Commissioners from other countries.

The President is the de jure Commander in Chief of the Indian Armed Forces.
The President of India can grant a pardon to or reduce the sentence of a convicted person for one time, particularly in cases involving punishment of death.
The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the president are independent of the opinion of the Prime Minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most other cases, however, the President exercises his or her executive powers on the advice of the Prime Minister.

Financial powers

Money bills can be introduced in the Parliament only on the prior recommendation of the President. He/she also causes to be laid before the Parliament the annual financial statement which is the Union Budget. Further no demand for grant shall be made except on his recommendation. He/She can also make advances out of the Contingency Fund of India to meet any unforeseen expenditure. Moreover, he\she constitutes the Finance Commission every 5 years to recommend the distribution of taxes between the States and the Centre.

Judicial powers

The president appoints the Chief Justice of the Union Judiciary and other judges on the advice of the Chief Justice. In practice, these judges are actually selected by the Union cabinet. The President dismisses the judges if and only if the two Houses of the Parliament pass resolutions to that effect by two-thirds majority of the members present.
If they consider a question of law or a matter of public importance has arisen they can ask for the advisory opinion of the Supreme Court. He may or may not accept that opinion.
He/She has the right to grant pardon. He/She can suspend, remit or commute the death sentence of any person..

President Judicial Powers

The President's pardoning power comprises a group of analogous powers:
1. Pardon: It rescinds both the sentence and the conviction and completely absolves the offender from all punishments and disqualifications.
2. Reprieve: It means a stay of execution of sentence pending a proceeding for pardon or commutation.
3. Remission: The power of remission reduces the amount of sentence without changing its character. E.g., a sentence of imprisonment for one year may be remitted for six months.
4. Respite: The power to grant respite means awarding a lesser sentence instead of the prescribed penalty in view of some special facts. E.g., pregnancy of the woman offender.
5. Commutation: It merely substitutes one form of the punishment for another of a lighter character - death by transportation, transportation by rigorous imprisonment, rigorous imprisonment by simple imprisonment, and simple imprisonment by fine and so on.
He/She enjoys the judicial immunity:
• No criminal proceedings can be initiated against him/her during his term in office.
• He/She is not answerable for the exercise of his duties.

Diplomatic powers

All international treaties and agreements are negotiated and concluded on behalf of the President. However, in practice, such negotiations are usually carried out by the Prime Minister along with his Cabinet (especially the Foreign Minister). Also, such treaties are subject to the approval of the Parliament. The President represents India in international forums and affairs where such a function is chiefly ceremonial. The President may also send and receive diplomats like Ambassadors and High Commissioners.
Military powers
The President is the supreme commander of the defence forces of India, in this capacity the president can appoint Army, Navy & Air Chiefs. The President can declare war or conclude peace, subject to the approval of parliament only under the decision of the Council of Ministers

Emergency powers

The President can declare three types of emergencies: national, state and financial.

National emergency

National emergency is caused by war, external aggression or armed rebellion in the whole of India or a part of its territory. Such an emergency was declared in India in 1962 (Indo-China war), 1971 (Indo-Pakistan war), 1975 to 1977 (declared by Indira Gandhi on account of "internal disturbance").
Under Article 352 of the India Constitution the President can declare such an emergency only on the basis of a written request by the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. Such a proclamation must be approved by the Parliament within one month. Such an emergency can be imposed for six months. It can be extended by six months by repeated parliamentary approval, up to a maximum of 3 Years.
In such an emergency, Fundamental Rights of Indian citizens can be suspended. The six freedoms under Right to Freedom are automatically suspended. However, the Right to Life and Personal Liberty cannot be suspended.
The Parliament can make laws on the 66 subjects of the State List (which contains subjects on which the state governments can make laws). Also, all money bills are referred to the Parliament for its approval. The term of the Lok Sabha can be extended by a period of up to one year, but not so as to extend the term of Parliament beyond six months after the end of the declared emergency.

State emergency

State emergency, also known as President's rule, is declared due to breakdown of constitutional machinery in a state.
If the President is satisfied, on the basis of the report of the Governor of the concerned state or from other sources that the governance in a state cannot be carried out according to the provisions in the Constitution, he/she can declare a state of emergency in the state. Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within a period of six months.
Under Article 356 of the Indian Constitution, it can be imposed from six months to a maximum period of three years with repeated parliamentary approval every six months. If the emergency needs to be extended for more than three years, this can be achieved by a constitutional amendment, as has happened in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir.
During such an emergency, the President can take over the entire work of the executive, and the Governor administers the state in the name of the President. The Legislative Assembly can be dissolved or may remain in suspended animation. The Parliament makes laws on the 66 subjects of the state list (see National emergency for explanation). All money bills have to be referred to the Parliament for approval.
On 19 January 2009, President's rule was imposed on the Indian State of Jharkhand making it the latest state where this kind of emergency has been imposed.
A State Emergency can be imposed via the following:
1. By Article 356:-If that state failed to run constitutionally i.e. constitutional machinery has failed
2. By Article 365:-If that state is not working according to the given direction of the Union Government.
This type of emergency needs the approval of the parliament within 2 months. This type of emergency can last up to a maximum of 3 years via extensions after each 6 month period. However, after one year it can be extended only if
1. A state of National Emergency has been declared in the country or in the particular state.
2. The Election Commission finds it difficult to organize an election in that state.

Financial emergency

If the President is satisfied that there is an economic situation in which the financial stability or credit of India is threatened, he/she can proclaim financial emergency as per the Constitutional Article 360. Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within two months. It has never been declared. On a previous occasion, the financial stability or credit of India has indeed been threatened, but a financial emergency was avoided through the selling off of India's gold reserves.
A state of financial emergency remains in force indefinitely until revoked by the President.
In case of a financial emergency, the President can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts. All money bills are passed by the State legislatures are submitted to the President for his approval. They can direct the state to observe certain principles (economy measures) relating to financial matters.

Selection Process

Eligibility

Article 58 of the Constituion sets the principle qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the office of the President. A President must be :
• a citizen of India
• of 35 years of age or above
• qualified to become a member of the Lok Sabha
A person shall not be eligible for election as President if he holds any office of profit under the Government of India or the Government of any State or under any local or other authority subject to the control of any of the said Governments.
Certain office-holders, however, are permitted to stand as Presidential candidates. These are:
• The current Vice President.
• The Governor of any State.
• A Minister of the Union or of any State.

In the event that the Vice President, a State Governor or a Minister is elected President, they are considered to have vacated their previous office on the date they begin serving as President.

Conditions for Presidency

Certain conditions, as per Article 59 of the Constitution, debar any eligible citizen from contesting the presidential elections. The conditions are :
• The President shall not be a member of either House of Parliament or of a House of the Legislature of any State,and if a member of either House of Parliament or of a House of the Legislature of any State be elected President, he shall be deemed to have vacated his seat in that House on the date on which he enters upon his office as President.
• The President shall not hold any other office of profit.
• The President shall be entitled without payment of rent to the use of his official residences and shall be also entitled to such emoluments, allowances and privileges as may be determined by Parliament by law and until provision in that behalf is so made, such emoluments, allowances and privileges as are specified in the Second Schedule.
• The emoluments and allowances of the President shall not be diminished during his term of office.

Election of the President

Whenever the office becomes vacant, the new president is chosen by an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both houses of the Parliament and the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies (Vidhan Sabha).
The election is held in accordance to the system of Proportional Representation by means of Single Transferable Vote method. The Voting takes place by secret ballot system. The manner of election of President is provided by Article 55.
The formula adopted to secure uniformity among the States is as follows:
Value of Vote of an MLA = State Population / (1000' Total no. of elected MLA's)
On the basis of the above formula, the value of the vote of an MLA from UP has the highest value and that from Sikkim the lowest.
The formula adopted to secure uniformity between all the States on one hand and the Parliament on the other is as follows:
Value of Vote of an MP = Total value of votes of MLA's of all States / Total no. of elected MP's (LS + RS)
The 1971 census is currently under consideration.
The election is held through the system of proportional representation by means of the single - transferable vote by secret ballot.
The candidate who gets 50% of votes is considered elected.

Constitutional role

Constitutional role of the Indian Constitution states "There shall be a President of India". Article 53(1) vests in the President the executive powers of the Union which are exercised either directly or through subordinate officers in accordance with the Constitution. Although the Constitution explicitly says that the president is the executive head of the state, real executive power is exercised by the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister. This is inferred from Article 74 of the Indian Constitution, providing for a "... council of ministers to aid and advise the President who shall, in exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice".
On September 11, 2008 the Government of India increased the salary of the President to Rs. 1.5 lakh (US$ 3,200).

Removal of the President (impeachment)

The President may be removed before the expiry of his/her term through impeachment. A President can only be removed for violation of the Constitution.
The process may start in either of the two houses of the Parliament. The house initiates the process by leveling the charges against the President. The charges are contained in a notice which has to be signed by at least one quarter of the total members of that house. The notice is sent up to the President and 14 days later, it is taken up for consideration.
A resolution to impeach the President has to be passed by a two-third majority of the total members of the originating house. It is then sent to the other house. The other house investigates the charges that have been made. During this process, the President has the right to defend himself/herself through an authorized counsel. If the second house also approves the charges made by two-third majority again, the President stands impeached and is deemed to have vacated his/her office from the date when such a resolution stands passed. Other than impeachment, no other penalty can be given to the President for the violation of the Constitution.
No President has faced impeachment proceedings. Hence, the above provisions have never been tested.
Succession
In the event of a vacancy created for the President's post due to death, resignation, removal, etc., Article 65 of the [Indian Constitution] says that the Vice President will have to discharge his duties. The Vice President reverts to his office when a new President is elected and enters upon his office. When the President is unable to act owing to his absence, illness or any other cause, the Vice President discharges the President's functions for a temporary period until the President resumes his duties.
When the Vice President acts as, or discharges the functions of the President, he has all the powers and immunities of the President and is entitled to the same emoluments as the President.
Parliament has by an enactment made provision for the discharge of the functions of the President when vacancies occur in the offices of the President and of the Vice President simultaneously, owing to removal, death, resignation of the incumbent or otherwise. In such an eventuality, the Chief Justice, or in his absence, the senior most Judge of the Supreme Court of India available discharges the functions of the President until a newly elected President enters upon his office or a newly elected Vice President begins to act as President under Article 65 of the Constitution, whichever is the earlier.

Presidents

This list is numbered based on Presidents elected after winning an Indian Presidential election. The terms of Varahagiri Venkata Giri, Muhammad Hidayatullah, and Basappa Danappa Jatti, who have functioned as acting presidents, are therefore not numbered. The President of India does not represent any political party, and the Political party column below indicates the party (if any) that the president was a member of before being elected. The colours used in the table indicate the following:
# Name Took office Left office Notes
1 Dr Rajendra Prasad
26 January 1950 13 May 1962 Prasad was the first President of independent India from Bihar. He was also an independence activist of the Indian Independence Movement. Prasad was the only president to serve for two terms in office.
2 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
13 May 1962 13 May 1967

3 Zakir Hussain
13 May 1967 3 May 1969 Hussain was vice chancellor of the Aligarh Muslim University and a recipient of Padma Vibhushan and Bharat Ratna. He died before his term of office was ended.

Varahagiri Venkata Giri *
3 May 1969 20 July 1969 Giri was appointed as acting president following the death of Hussain. He resigned in a few months to take part in the presidential elections.
Muhammad Hidayatullah *
20 July 1969 24 August 1969 Hidayatullah served as the Chief Justice of India, and was a recipient of the Order of the British Empire. He served as acting president until the election of Giri as the President of India.
4 Varahagiri Venkata Giri
24 August 1969 24 August 1974 Giri is the only person to have served as both an acting president and president of India. He was a recipient of the Bharat Ratna,
5 Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
24 August 1974 11 February 1977 Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed served as a Minister before being elected as president. He died in 1977 before his term of office ended, and was the second Indian president to have died during a term of office.
Basappa Danappa Jatti *
11 February 1977 25 July 1977 Jatti was the vice president of India during Ahmed's term of office, and was sworn in as acting president upon Ahmed's death. He earlier functioned as the Chief Minister for the State of Mysore.

6 Neelam Sanjiva Reddy
25 July 1977 25 July 1982
7 Giani Zail Singh
25 July 1982 25 July 1987 In March 1972, Singh assumed the position of chief Minister of Punjab, and in 1980, he became Union Home Minister.
8 Ramaswamy Venkataraman
25 July 1987 25 July 1992 In 1942, Venkataraman was jailed by the British for his involvement in the India's independence movement. After his release, he was elected to independent India’s Provisional Parliament as a member of the Congress Party in 1950 and eventually joined the central government, where he first served as Minister of Finance and Industry and later as Minister of Defence.
9 Shankar Dayal Sharma
25 July 1992 25 July 1997
10 Kocheril Raman Narayanan
25 July 1997 25 July 2002 Narayanan served as India's ambassador to Thailand, Turkey, China and United States of America.
11 A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
25 July 2002 25 July 2007 Kalam, was a scientist who played a leading role in the development of India's ballistic missile and nuclear weapons programs. Kalam also received the Bharat Ratna.

12 Pratibha Patil
25 July 2007 Incumbent
Patil is the first woman to become the President of India. She was also the first female Governor of Rajasthan.

Some imp. Facts:

His prior recommendation or permission is needed to introduce certain types of Bills in the Parliament. E.g., a Bill for the formation of new States or alteration of boundaries of a State, a Money Bill, etc.
When a Bill is sent to the President after it has been passed by the Parliament, he can:
1. Give his assent to the Bill, or
2. Withhold his assent to the Bill, or
3. Return the Bill (if it is not a Money Bill or a Constitutional Amendment Bill) for reconsideration of the Parliament, although only once.
Art. 74 (1)). The 44th amendment Act, 1978 gave the President a new power to return such an advice for reconsideration of the Council of Ministers.
President has the power to veto with respect to the Bills passed by the Parliament.
He enjoys three types of veto powers:
1. Absolute Veto: Withholding the assent to the Bill.
In the case of a Government Bill, a situation may however be imagined where, after the passage of a Bill and before it is assented to by the President, the ministry resigns and new council of ministers advices the President to use his veto power against the Bill.
2. suspensive Veto: It is exercised when instead of refusing his assent out rightly to a Bill, the President returns the Bill or part of it for the reconsideration and the Parliament makes it obligatory on him to give his assent to it.
In this case, the veto power is merely of suspensive nature.
3. Pocket Veto: Since the Constitution does not provide any time limit within which the President is to declare his assent or refusal, the President could exercise this veto by not taking any action for an indefinite time; but if the ministry has a strong backing in Parliament, it would not be possible for him to do so.
4. Qualified veto: a veto is qualified when it is overridden by special majority of the legislature.
Pocket Veto was used in 1986 by the then President Giani Zail Singh in the Postal Bill.
He can enact laws through ordinance when the Parliament is in recess (Article 123).
These ordinances must be passed by Parliament within 6 weeks of reassembly.
He lays the report of the Comptroller and Auditor General, UPSC, the Finance Commission, and others, before the Parliament.
President Executive Powers
He Appoints PM, ministers, Chief Justice & judges of Supreme Court & High Courts, chairman & members of UPSC, Comptroller and Auditor General, Attorney General, Chief Election Commissioner and other members of Election Commission, Governors, Members of Finance Commission, Ambassadors, etc.
He directly administers the Union Territories through the Lt. Governor, Commissioner or Administrator.

President Legislative Powers

Can summon & prorogue the sessions of the 2 houses & can dissolve Lok Sabha.
As per our Constitution the President is eligible for re-election any number of times. The office of the President may be terminated before the expiry of the five-year term by:

The President submits his resignation in writing addressed to the Vice-President

The President is removed from office by process of impeachment in the manner provided in Article 61

MISCELLANEOUS:

In the history of Presidential elections, V.V. Giri is the only person who won the election of the President as an independent candidate in 1969.
In July 1977, Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy was elected unopposed as no one else filed nomination for the post of the President.
He decides on the questions as to the qualifications of the MPs, in consultation with the Election
Commission.Dr. Rajendra Prasad held the post twice.
Dr. Rajendra Prasad won the election with maximum percentage of difference. votes: V.V. Giri with minimum difference.
Except Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Farooq Ali Ahamed, Sanjeeva Reddy, Jail Singh A.P.J. Abdul Kalam and Pratibha Patil all other Presidents also worked as Vice-President.

Dr.K.R.Narayanan was the only President from S.C.Category
Mohammed Syed Hitayadullah was the only Chief Justice who as acted as President and worked as Vice President.

Ordinance making power of president:

1. President of India has got ordinance making power u/a 123 of the constitution.
2. President can exercise this power when one or both the houses are not in session, otherwise this power is not available.
3. This power can only be exercised on the advice of council of ministers and covers all those provisions which are available with the legislature.
4. The ordinance must be laid before the house when it reassembles and shall automatically cease to have effect at the expiration of six weeks from the date of reassembly of the house.
5. Parliament can disapprove the ordinance earlier.