Ecology worksheet 2

ARUN JOSHI

1. Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) is an apex body in the national forestry research system. It is located at----------------------
2. Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding (IFGTB) is located at----------------------
3. Tropical Forest Research Institute (TFRI) is located at--------------------------
4. BSI was established in---------------- with the basic objective to explore the plant resources of the country and to identify the plants species with economic virtues.
5. Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) is the apex institution under MOEF for research in Fauna. It has been undertaking exploration and research leading to the advancement of our knowledge on the exceptionally rich faunal diversity of the country since its inception in --------, with its Headquarters at ----------and sixteen regional centers located in different parts of the country.
6. Wildlife Institute of India (WII) was established in 1982. it is located at-------------
7. The Wild Life (Protection) Act came into force in----------------------
8. The Central Government has given Ganga the status of a------------- River’ and has constituted a ‘National Ganga River Basin Authority’ (NGRBA) on February 20, -------------
9. The concept of biodiversity hotspots was given by ---------------------------
10. India has two biodiversity hot spots, namely:------------and ---------------------
11. overall there are----------------- Biodiversity Hotspots
12. Central National Herbarium is located at --------------
13. CNH is one of the oldest and one of the largest herbaria in the world, was established in 1795 by-----------
14. Indian Botanic Garden was established in 1787 by------------------------
15. Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) is located at----------------

Poverty in India: Rural and Urban( By Arun Joshi,9888933043)

I. Rural Poverty

Main Reasons for Rural Poverty

Rapid Population Growth
Lack of Capital
Lack of alternate employment opportunities other than agriculture
Excessive population pressure on Agriculture
Illiteracy
Regional disparities
Joint family system
Child marriage tradition
Indifferent attitude towards investment
Lack of proper implementation of Public Distribution System (PDS)

Government Efforts for Eliminating Rural Poverty

Legal elimination of bonded labourers
Preventing the centralization of wealth by modifying the law
Antyodaya plan
Small Farmer Development Programme (SFDP)
Drought Area Development Programme (DADP)
Twenty Point Programme
Food for Work Programme
Minimum Needs Programme (MNP)
Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
National Rural Employment Programme (NREP)
Rural Labour Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP)
Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY) (Formerly known as Jawahar Rojgar Yojana)
TRYSEM Scheme
Family planning / welfare programme for population control
Employment Assurance Scheme
Scheme for Rural artisans/craftsmen
DWCRA Programme
Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
Mahila Samridhi Yojana
National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP)
Group Life Insurance Scheme for Rural Areas
Rural Housing Programme
Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY)
Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana
Sampoorna Gramin Rojgar Yojana
Indira Awas Yojana
Samagra Awas Yojana
Pradhan Mantri Rojgar Yojana
Agriculture Income Insurance Scheme
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MNREGS)

II.Urban Poverty

Main Reasons for Urban Poverty

Migration of rural youth towards cities
Lack of vocational education / training
Limited job opportunities of employment in the cities
Rapid increase in population
Lack of housing facilities
No proper implementation of Public Distribution System (PDS)

Government Efforts for Eliminating Urban Poverty

Emphasis on vocational education
Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY)
Self-Employment Programme for the Urban Poor (SEPUP)
Financial assistance for construction houses
Self-Employment to the Educated Urban Youth (SEEUY) Programme
Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (It is also implemented in rural areas)
National Social Assistance Programme
Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP) Programme
Prime Minister’s Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme (PMIUPEP)
Swarna Jayanti Shahri Rozgar Yojana

Vedas (By Arun Joshi,9888933043)

The Vedas are a large body of texts originating in Ancient India. They form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism.
According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas are apauruṣeya "not of human agency"being supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śruti ("what is heard").Vedic mantras are recited at Hindu prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions. The mystic dimensions and applications of these mantras as a way of obtaining the physical immortality was elaborated in Sri Aurobindo's Secret of the Veda
The class of "Vedic texts" is aggregated around the four canonical samhitas or Vedas proper, of which three (trayi) are related to the performance of yajna (sacrifice) in historical (Iron Age). The hymns address nature gods such as Varuna (water), Vayu (air), Agni (fire), Indra (thunder-king of gods) etc. asking for prosperity, progeny and so on. The hymns are mean to be recited while performing fire sacrifices and other rituals.

Vedic religion:
1. the Rigveda, containing hymns to be recited by the hotṛ or reciting priest;
2. the Yajurveda, containing formulas to be recited by the adhvaryu or officiating priest;
3. the Samaveda, containing formulas to be sung by the udgātṛ or chanting priest.
4. the Atharvaveda, is one of the oldest and is relatively great in extent from a collection of praises, stories, predictions, charms and some speculative hymns used by the priests .

Philosophies and sects that developed in the Indian subcontinent have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika). Other traditions, notably Buddhism and Jainism, though they are (like the vedanta) similarly concerned with liberation did not regard the Vedas as divine ordinances but rather human expositions of the sphere of higher spiritual knowledge, hence not sacrosanct. These groups are referred to by traditional Hindu texts as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools. In addition to Buddhism and Jainism, Sikhism also does not accept the authority of the Vedas.

Dating

The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts in the world dating from c. 1500-500BCE. Most Indologists agree that an oral tradition existed long before a literary tradition tentatively may have been set in (in one shakha, Kanva) from about the 1st century BCE; however it was again superseded by oral tradition until c. 1000 CE. Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years. The Benares Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript of the mid-14th century; however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal belonging to the Vajasaneyi tradition that are dated from the 11th century onwards.

The Vedic period lasts for about a millennium, spanning the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Gavin Flood sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BCE over a period of several centuries. The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern Black Polished Ware). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 BCE to c. 500-400 BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Mitanni material of ca. 1400 BCE as the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan that may date to the Rigvedic period. However Mitanni Indo-Aryan is linguistically slightly older than the language of the Rigveda, and the comparison thus still does not allow for an absolute dating of any Vedic text. He gives 150 BCE (Patanjali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda.

Categories of Vedic texts

The term "Vedic texts" is used in two distinct meanings:
1. texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit during the Vedic period (Iron Age India)
2. any text considered as "connected to the Vedas" or a "corollary of the Vedas
Vedic Sanskrit corpus
The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes:
• The Samhita (Sanskrit saṃhitā, "collection"), are collections of metric texts ("mantras"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda, most of which are available in several recensions (śākhā). In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhitas. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, apart from the Rigvedic hymns, which were probably essentially complete by 1200 BC, dating to ca. the 12th to 10th centuries BC. The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance (1907) consists of some 89,000 padas (metric feet), of which 72,000 occur in the four Samhitas.
• The Brahmanas are prose texts that discuss, in technical fashion, the solemn sacrificial rituals as well as comment on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions. The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.
• The Aranyakas, or "wilderness texts", are the concluding part of the Brahmanas that contain discussions and interpretations of dangerous rituals (to be studied outside the settlement) and various sorts of additional materials. They are not "forest texts" for ascetics, as is frequently read in secondary literature.
• some of the older Mukhya Upanishads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chandogya, Kaṭha).
• Certain Sutra literature, i.e. the Shrautasutras and the Grhyasutras.

The Shrauta Sutras, regarded as belonging to the smriti, are late Vedic in language and content, thus forming part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus. The composition of the Shrauta and Grhya Sutras (ca. 6th century BC) marks the end of the Vedic period , and at the same time the beginning of the flourishing of the "circum-Vedic" scholarship of Vedanga, introducing the early flowering of classical Sanskrit literature in the Mauryan and Gupta periods.
While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceases with the end of the Vedic period, there is a large number of Upanishads composed after the end of the Vedic period. While most of the ten mukhya Upanishads can be considered to date to the Vedic or Mahajanapada period, most of the 108 Upanishads of the full Muktika canon date to the Common Era.

The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads often interpret the polytheistic and ritualistic Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the self (Atman), introducing Vedanta philosophy, one of the major trends of later Hinduism.

The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is the scope of A Vedic Word Concordance (Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935-1965. Its scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-Vedic" texts.
Volume I: Samhitas
Volume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas
Volume III: Upanishads
Volume IV: Vedangas


Shruti literature

Śruti is a term that describes the sacred texts which comprise the central canon of Hinduism. These works span the entire history of Hinduism, beginning with the some of the earliest known Hindu texts and ending in the early modern period with the later Upanishads. Śruti literature differs from Smrti, or "remembered" texts - which are based upon tradition. Śruti are considered revealed records of the "cosmic sound of truth" heard by rishis (saints or sages).
Pre-eminent in śruti literature are the four Vedas:
• Rig-Veda (hymns recited by the hotar)
• Yajur-Veda (hymns recited by the adhvaryu)
• Sama-Veda (hymns recited by the udgatr)
• Atharva-Veda (a collection of ancient spells and charms)

Rigveda

The Rig-Veda Samhita is the oldest significant existent Indian text. It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas). The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.
The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of some 500 years, which Avari dates as 1400 BCE to 900 BCE, if not earlier According to Max Müller, based on internal evidence (philological and linguistic), the Rigveda was composed roughly between 1700–1100 BCE (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the Indian subcontinent.

Yajurveda

The Yajur-Veda ("Veda of sacrificial formulas") consists of archaic prose mantras and also in part of verses borrowed and adapted from the Rig-Veda. Its purpose was practical, in that each mantra must accompany an action in sacrifice but, unlike the Sama-Veda, it was compiled to apply to all sacrificial rites, not merely the Soma offering. There are two major recensions of this Veda known as the "Black" and "White" Yajur-Veda. The origin and meaning of these designations are not very clear. The White Yajur-Veda contains only the verses and formulas (yajus) necessary for the sacrifice, while their discussion exists in a separate work, the Shatapatha Brahmana. It differs widely from the Black Yajurveda, which incorporates such discussions in the work itself, often immediately following the verses.

Samaveda

The Sama-Veda is the "Veda of melodies" or "Knowledge of melodies". The name of this Veda is from the Sanskrit word sāman which means a melody applied to metrical hymn or song of praise. It consists of 1549 stanzas, taken entirely (except 78) from the Rig-Veda. Like the Rigvedic stanzas in the Yajurveda, the Samans have been changed and adapted for use in singing.

Atharvaveda

The Artharva-Veda is the "Knowledge of the [atharvans] (and Angirasa)". The Artharva-Veda or Atharvangirasa is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa' poets. Apte defined an atharvan as a priest who worshipped fire and Soma. However, the etymology of Atharvan is unclear, but according to Mayrhofer it is related to Avesta athravan .he denies any connection with fire priests. Atharvan was an ancient term for a certain Rishi even in the Rigveda. (The older secondary literature took them as priests who worshipped fire).
The Atharva-Veda Saṃhitā has 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rig-Veda. Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose.

Brahmana

The Brāhmaṇas are part of the Hindu śruti literature. They are commentaries on the four Vedas, detailing the proper performance of rituals.
Each Vedic shakha (school) had its own Brahmana, and it is not known how many of these texts existed during the Mahajanapadas period. About twenty Brahmana have survived into modern times.
The Brahmanas were seminal in the dvelopment of later Indian thought and scholarship, including Hindu philosophy, predecessors of Vedanta, law, astronomy, geometry, linguistics (Panini), the concept of Karma, or the stages in life such as brahmacarya, grihastha and eventually, sannyasi. Some Brahmanas contain sections that are Aranyakas or Upanishads in their own right.

Vedanta

While contemporary traditions continued to maintain Vedic ritualism (Shrauta, Mimamsa), Vedanta renounced all ritualism and radically re-interpreted the notion of "Veda" in purely philosophical terms.
Vedanta is a spiritual tradition explained in the Upanishads that is concerned with the self-realisation by which one understands the ultimate nature of reality (Brahman). Vedanta which implies "the end of all knowledge" - by definition is not restricted or confined to one book and there is no sole source for Vedantic philosophy. Vedanta is based on immutable spiritual laws that are common to religions and spiritual traditions worldwide. Vedanta as the end of knowledge refers to a state of self-realisation, attainment, or cosmic consciousness. Historically and currently Vedanta is understood as a state of transcendence and not as a concept that can be grasped by the intellect alone.

Upanishad

The Upanishads are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings of Vedanta. They do not belong to any particular period of Sanskrit literature: the oldest, such as the Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, date to the late Brahmana period (around the middle of the first millennium BCE), while the latest were composed in the medieval and early modern period. The Upanishads realize monist ideas, some of which were hinted at in the earlier texts, and they have exerted an important influence on the rest of Hindu and Indian philosophy.

"Principal" Upanishads

The following list includes the eleven "principal" (mukhya) Upanishads commented upon by Shankara, and accepted as shruti by most Hindus. Each is associated with one of the four Vedas (Rigveda (ṚV), Samaveda (SV), White Yajurveda (ŚYV), Black Yajurveda (KYV), Atharvaveda (AV));
1. Aitareya (ṚV)
2. Bṛhadāraṇyaka (ŚYV)
3. Taittirīya (KYV)
4. Chāndogya (SV)
5. Kena (SV)
6. Īṣa (ŚYV)
7. Śvetāśvatara(KYV)
8. Kaṭha (KYV)
9. Muṇḍaka (AV)
10. Māṇḍūkya (AV)
11. Praśna (AV)


Vedanga

The Vedanga ( "member of the Veda") are six auxiliary disciplines for the understanding and tradition of the Vedas.
1. Shiksha phonetics and phonology (sandhi)
2. Chandas meter
3. Vyakarana grammar
4. Nirukta): etymology
5. Jyotisha astrology and astronomy, dealing particularly with the auspicious days for performing sacrifices.
6. Kalpa;ritual

Traditionally, vyākaraṇa and nirukta are shared across all four Vedas, while each veda has its own śikṣā, chandas, kalpa and jyotiṣa. The Vedangas are first mentioned in the Mundaka Upanishad as topics to be observed by students of the Vedas. Later, they developed into independent disciplines, each with its own corpus of Sutras.

The six branches of Vedic science, included under the term Vedanga, are as follows:
1. Shiksha, or Phonetics. The privileged position of representing this subject is assigned to a small treatise ascribed to the great grammarian Panini, viz, the Paniniya shiksha, extant in two different (Rik and Yajus) recensions. But neither this treatise nor any other of the numerous shikshas which have recently come to light can lay claim to any very high age. Scholars, however, usually include under this head certain works, called Pratishakhya, i.e. "belonging to a certain shakha or recension", which deal minutely with the phonetic peculiarities of the several Samhitas, and are of great importance for the textual criticism of the Vedic Samhitas.
2. Chhandas, or Metre. Tradition makes the Chhandas-sutra of Pingala the starting-point of prosody. The Vedic metres, however, occupy but a small part of this treatise, and they are evidently dealt with in a more original manner in the Nidana-sutra of the Samaveda, and in a chapter of the Rik-pratishakhya. For profane prosody, on the other hand, Pingala's treatise is rather valuable, no less than 160 metres being described by him.
3. Vyakarana, or Grammar. Panini's famous grammar is said to be the Vedanga; but it marks the culminating point of grammatical research rather than the beginning, and besides treats chiefly of the post-Vedic language.
4. Nirukta, or Etymology. Yaska's Nirukta is the traditional representative of this subject, and this important work certainly deals entirely with Vedic etymology and explanation. It consists, in the first place, of strings of words in three chapters: (1) synonymous words; (2) such as are purely or chiefly Vedic; and (3) names of deities. These lists are followed by Yaska's commentary, interspersed with numerous illustrations. Yasaka, again, quotes several predecessors in the same branch of science; and it is probable that the original works on this subject consisted merely of lists of words similar to those handed down by him.
5. Jyotisha, or Astronomy. Although astronomical calculations are frequently referred to in older works in connection with the performance of sacrifices, the metrical treatise which has come down to us in two different recensions under the title of Jyotisha, ascribed to one Lagadha, or Lagata, seems indeed to be the oldest existing systematic treatise on astronomical subjects. With the exception of some apparently spurious verses of one of the recensions, it betrays no sign of the Greek influence which shows itself in Hindu astronomical works from about the 3rd century of our era; and its date may therefore be set down as probably not later than the early centuries after Christ.
6. Kalpa, or Ceremonial. Tradition does not single out any special work as the Vedanga in this branch of Vedic science; but the sacrificial practice gave rise to a large number of systematic sutra-manuals for the several classes of priests. The most important of these works have come down to us, and they occupy by far the most prominent place among the literary productions of the sutra-period. The Kalpa-sutras, or rules of ceremonial, are of two kinds: (I) the Srauta-sutras, which are based on the shruti, and teach the performance of the great sacrifices, requiring three sacrificial fires; and (2) the Smrta-sutras, or rules based on the smiti or tradition. The latter class again includes two kinds of treatises: (1) the Grhya-sutras, or domestic rules, treating of ordinary family rites, such as marriage, birth, namegiving, &c., connected with simple offerings in the domestic fire; and (2) the Samayacharika- (or Dharma-) sutras, which treat of customs and temporal duties, and are supposed to have formed the chief sources of the later law-books. Besides, the Shrauta-sutras of the Yajurveda have usually attached to them a set of so-called Shulva-sutras, i.e. rules of the cord, which treat of the measurement by means of cords, and the construction, of different kinds of altars required for sacrifices. These treatises are of special interest as supplying important information regarding the earliest geometrical operations in India. Along with the Sutras may be classed a large number of supplementary treatises, usually called Parishishta (παραλιπομενα), on various subjects connected with the sacred texts and Vedic religion generally.

Supplementary Vedas

The term upaveda ("applied knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works. Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources. The Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas:
• Medicine (Āyurveda), associated with the Rigveda
• Archery (Dhanurveda), associated with the Yajurveda
• Music and sacred dance (Gāndharvaveda), associated with the Samaveda
• Military science (Shastrashastra), associated with the Atharvaveda

Biosphere reserves(By Arun Joshi,9888933043)

The Indian government has established 15 Biosphere Reserves of India which protect larger areas of natural habitat and often include one or more National Parks and/or preserves, along buffer zones that are open to some economic uses. Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected region, but also to the human communities who inhabit these regions, and their ways of life. The 15 Bio-reserves in India are-
1. Sunderbans
2. Gulf of Mannar
3. The Nilgiris
4. Nanda Devi
5. Nokrek
6. Great Nicobar
7. Manas
8. Simlipal
9. Dihang Dibang
10. Dibru Saikhowa
11. Agasthyamalai
12. Kanchenjunga
13. Pachmarhi
14. Achanakmar-Amarkantak
15. Kachchh
Seven of the fifteen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme list.
 Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
 Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
 Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve
 Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
 Simlipal Biosphere Reserve
 Nokrek Biosphere Reserve
 Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve

Aryan Conquest of the Punjab(by Arun Joshi,Sri-Krishna Institute,9888933043)

The Aryans

The mountains in the north-west is the primitive home of the Aryans, who migrated into the Punjab. Bands of these immigrants penetrated into the Punjab through the Himalayan passes. Being fresh from a cold northern country, they were very fair in color and called themselves Arya, meaning honorable. They bore the closest relation to the inhabitants of Iran and had a very similar language. Their first conquisition was the Punjab, and the period of when they invaded is uncertain, but is generally accepted they came some 2500 years ago, about 1500 B.C.

The Four Vedas

During this time, the four Vedas, the oldest living scriptures in the world, composed around 1500-1700 BC, supplies evidence concerning the life of the Aryans who settled in the Punjab. The Rig Veda, meaning fount of knowledge, is regarded by Hindus as the highest, the most sacred scriptures. The Vedas are four in number, the Rig, the Sama, the Yajar and the Atharvan, and they are each a collection of hymns and prayers. The hymns belong to different ages, and, before the art of writing was introduced, were preserved by the saintly families to whom they are believed to have been revealed. In that shape, they were handed down for generations from father to son. Gradually, the hymns were written in Sanskrit during the later period of the Aryan existence.


Early Artwork

Features and Language The Aryans of the Punjab bear a close resemblance to their brothers of the West with their straight noses and finely-chiseled features. They once spoke Sanskrit in its rude form, and also speak in a language common to Greek, Germanic, and Celtic languages. Even today, if one looks at the various Indian languages, one will find words common to many of the Western languages.


Battles Between Aryans and Early Inhabitants

The Rig Veda provides evidence that the primitive Aryans were not allowed to settle in the Punjab unmolested as long and bloody struggles were maintained in the wild. The inhabitants dwelt in cities built of stone, and possessed horses, cattle and chariots. They fought desperately for hearth and home, and the Aryans lost many battles before being finally able to subdue the early inhabitants. The Aryans fought in chariots drawn by horses. They had swords, axes, bows, spears, trumpeters, and standard-bearers. Trumpets and drums were used to excite them to valorous deeds or to convey the orders of commanders. The drum is the most ancient instrument used by the Hindus and it roused the warlike spirit of the warriors.

Battles Between Aryans and Inhabitants

Veneration for the Cow The Aryans were a people given more to the keeping and breeding of cattle than to the work of the plough. They were pastoral people, of nomadic habits. They often prayed their gods to bestow upon them many cows abounding in milk. The deities were invoked to protect the cows from misfortune, to increase the herds and to make the pastures green. The cow was pronounced to be the animal favored of the Al-mighty, and since it was so useful to man, its preservation became a religious obligation. The Aryans also kept humped oxen and camels.

Early Inhabitants of the Punjab

Their Organization and Civilization In their earlier colonies each father was the priest of his own family circle, and the vedic communities were organized into kingdoms. Those that were successful in war were often rewarded with slave women, dresses, cows, gold and chariots. The life of the Aryans of the Punjab was martial and manly. Their warlike character developed, and they adapted themselves to the conditions of tropical climate, very different than their cold, northern home. They dug channels for the purpose of irrigating their fields, and sowed beans, barley and sesame. They were acquainted with the arts of spinning and weaving and working of leather. They had among them carpenters, carriage makers, ship builders, goldsmiths, and other artisans. The possessed some knowledge of navigation; they had physicians who understood the healing properties of herbs. Also, monogamy seems to have been the rule, and a prince had to content himself with one wife.


Social Customs and Status of Woman

Women enjoyed a higher social status in Vedic times than that now accorded to her. She was termed the light of the dwelling. She had the privileges of acquiring knowledge, and some of the most eloquent hymns in the Vedas are attributed to female authors, ladies and queens. Child-marriage, although not absolutely prohibited, was not encouraged. Distinctions of caste were unknown, and Brahmanism represented a profession, not a distinct caste. The practice of sati, or the burning of a widow, was not sanctioned by the Vedas. In addition, unlike modern Hindus, the ancient Aryans held beef in esteem as an article of food. There were at one time beef-eating gods and beef-eating worshipers. The Aryans settlers of the Punjab were a spirit-drinking race and indulged freely in beer, wine, and spirit. Sages and saints drank and offered the fermented juice to the gods. The Aryans buried their dead, often in mountains, where they would become prey to the birds.

New book released on Mahatma at UN on Non-violence Day

MKG (Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi)- Imaging Peace, Truth and Ahimsa,' written by Birad Rajaram Yajnik was unveiled at a function .

October 1 is celebrated as International Day on Non-violence by the UN .

The Permanent Mission of India to the UN in New York commemorated the day with a function. The President of the General Assembly Joseph Deiss was the chief guest, while Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon was represented by his Chef de Cabinet Vijay Nambiar.

Indian envoy H S Puri welcomed the guests and exhorted the universal relevance of non-violence and the desire for a culture of peace, tolerance and understanding.

His emphasis on human rights and people centric development was echoed in the UN charter and resonated in the Millennium Development Goals, he added.

Govt finalises 3 interlocutors-Kashmir peace

As part of the eight-point peace package for Kashmir, the Centre has finalised a three-member team of interlocutors to be appointed for a renewed dialogue with separatist leaders in the trouble-torn Valley, on the boil for the past few months, and asked people of Kashmir to engage with them.

Famous journalist Dileep Padgaonkar will be the chief interlocutor whereas Information Commissioner M M Ansari and academic Prof Radha Kumar will be other two members of the team.

Mr Padgaonkar was member of the Kashmir Committee headed by eminent lawyer Ram Jethmalani.

Radha Kumar, who heads the Nelson Mandela Institute of Peace in Jamia Millia Islamia, was engaged in discussions with 'moderate' Hurriyat chief Mirwaiz Umar Farooq and hardliner Syed Ali Shah Geelani.

Noted educationist and economist Ansari was a professor and director at the Hamdard University before becoming the Information Commissioner.

Millennium Goals: India’s position(By Arun Joshi,Sri-Krishna Institute,9888933043)

According to a Human Resource Development Ministry statement on Millennium Development Goals governments set for themselves in the United Nations General Assembly in September 2000, the eight goals pledged by 19 governments translate into 18 targets with 48 indicators. The Eight Millennium Goals are

Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger
Achieving universal primary education
promoting gender equality and empowering women
Reducing child mortality
Improving maternal health
Combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
Ensuring sustainable environment
Developing global partnership for development

Indian indicators in the statement are:

Household which reported enough food for all members everyday throughout the year rose between 1993-94 and 2004-05 from 94.5% to 97.4% in rural areas and 98.1% to 99.4% in urban areas.

Households with access to drinking water from a tap, hand-pump or tube well increased from 62.3 % in 1991 to 78% in 2001.

India's planning commission estimated an 8.5%drop in poverty ratio from 36% in 1993-94 to 27.5% in 2004-05 although its standard for poverty line is itself way below the World Bank's.

The number of out of school children fell from 32 million in 2001-02 to 7 million in 2005-06 and the literacy rate rose from 52.2% in 1991 to 64.9% in 2001.

Female-male enrolment ratio rose between 1990-91 and 2004-05 from 71:00 at primary level from 50:100 to 71:100 at secondary level.

Infant mortality rate declined from 80/1000 live births in 1990 to 58 in 2005 and Maternal Mortality rate from 407/100,000 deliveries in 1998 to 301 in 2001-02.

As per National Family Health Survey the proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel rose from 33 % in 1992-93 to 48.3% in 2005-06.

The under 5 mortality rate declined from 125 deaths per thousand live births in 1988-92 to 98 in 1998-2002.

The proportion of households having toilets/bathroom facilities within the house increased from 23.7% in 1991 to 36.1% in 2001.

It is said that the Indian government has not drawn any separate programme as the Millennium goals are quite similar to the objectives of its 5 year plans.