.GIF)
Battle of Hydaspes—In 326 B.C. when Alexander, the great had to turn back from Hydaspes (Beas) when his troops refused to march into India against the Nanda Empire.
Battle of Kalinga—It was fought in 361 B.C. between Ashoka, the great and the king of Kalinga. The war resulted in considerable loss of life and brought misery and suffering to the people. Its impression on Ashoka was so great that he not only turned a Buddhist, but renounced war and violence.
1st Battle of Tarain (1191 A.D.)—Prithvi Raj defeated Mohd. Gauri.
2nd Battle of Tarain (1192 A.D.)—Mohd. Gauri defeated Prithvi Raj and paved the way for Muslim rule in India.
First Battle of Panipat (1526)—Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi. This laid the foundation of Mughal rule in India.
Second Battle of Panipat (1556)—Akbar defeated Hemu. It ended the Afgan Rule and the way was cleared for Mughal rule.
Battle of Talikota (1565)—The united alliance of Bijapur, Bidar, Ahmednagar and Golkunda under Hussain Nizam Shah defeated Ram Raja of Vijaynagar. It sealed the fate of the Hindu Kingdom of Vijaynagar.
Battle of Haldighati (1576)—Akbar defeated Rana Pratap. The latter had to take refuge in remote fortresses.
Battle of Plassey (1757)—The British under Lord Clive defeated Sirajuddaulah. It laid foundation of the British Rule in India.
Third Battle of Panipat (1761)—Ahmed Shah Abdali defeated the Marahattas. The Marahatta power suffered an irreparable loss.
Battle of Buxer (1764)—The British under Sir Hector Munro defeated the Muslim army under three Mohammadan leaders : Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-daulha and Shah Alam II. The battle made the British Supreme in India.
The First Sikh War (1845)—The Sikh Army crossed Sutlej in 1845 at which the East India Company declared war. British occupied Lahore and forced the Sikhs to accept humiliating terms of peace.
The Second Sikh War (1849)—A drawn battle was fought between the English and the Sikhs at Chelianwala in which the English appeared to have suffered heavy losses.
Indo-Pak War (1965)—An indecisive war between India and Pakistan. It led to ‘Taskent Pact’ between the two countries.
Indo-Pak War (1971)—Indian forces in joint command with Bangladesh Army accepted the surrender of the Pak Army in Bangladesh. War in the western sector came to an end as a result of cease-fire on Dec. 17. Bangladesh was liberated.
Kargil War (1999)—Indian forces scored grand victory over Pakistani army and Pak supported mercenaries in a conflict in the Kargil sector of Jammu & Kashmir. The operation was named ‘Operation Vijaya.’ The Indian forces cleared Kargil of all Pakistani elements.
Saturday, October 30, 2010
Great Sikh Gurus- An Introduction ( By Arun joshi,Sri-Krishna institute,9888933043)
GURU NANAKDEV JI
Guru Nanak Dev was born in 1469 A.D. at Rai-Bhoe DI Taiwandi, Distt. Shekhu Pura, the place which is called Nankana Sahib or Gurudwara Janam Asthan. This sacred place is in Pakistan now-a-days. His mother’s name was Tripta and father’s name was Mehta Kalu. Guru was founder of Sikh religion. There was tyranny in the society, when Guru Nanak took birth. He was sent to a Pandit for studies at the age of 7, but Pandit was stunned on hearing his views.
At Sultan Pur Lodhi, he went to a rivulet (Bein), Where he got enlightenment. For the welfare of the world he took four voyages in all the four directions and preached truth to the people. Hindus called him Guru and Muslims called him Pir. He gave his throne to Bhai Lahina. who was known by the name of Guru Angad Dev later on. This great saint passed away on 7.11.1539. The earliest biographical sources on the life of Guru Nanak recognized today are the Janamsākhīs (life accounts) and the vārs (expounding verses) of the scribe Bhai Gurdas. The most popular Janamsākhī were allegedly written by a close companion of the Guru, Bhai Bala. However, the writing style and language employed have left scholars such as Max Arthur Macauliffe certain that they were composed after his death.
GURU ANGAD DEV JI
This great man was born on 31st March, 1504 at Harike village in Ferozepur District. His childhood name was Lahina. His father Ferumal was a general merchant and was Kshatriya by caste. He was married to Bibi Kheevi daughter of Sh. Devi Chand at the age of 15. He had two Sons Datu and Dassu and two daughters Amro and Anokhi.
Guru Nanak Dev tested him and appointed him his successor. He gave one coconut and five paisa to Angad Dev and bowed before him. In this way, Guru Angad Dev became second Guru of Sikhs. In 1538, Guru Nanak Dev Ji chose Lehna, his disciple, as a successor to the Guruship rather than one of his sons. Bhai Lehna was given the name Angad and designated Guru Angad Dev, becoming the second guru of the Sikhs. He continued the work started by the first Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak Dev Ji. He passed away 0n 28th march 1552 at Amritsar.
GURU AMAR DAS JI
Guru Amar Das was born at village Sabarke, distt. Amritsar on 5th May, 1479 in Baba Tej Bhan’s home. He was Kashatriya by caste. He had two sons Mohan and Mohri and two daughters Bibi Bhani and Bibi Dani.
He used to lead a pious life. Finally he come to the shelter of Guru Angad Dev and served him devotedly. Guru Angad Dev was highly influenced by him and finally gave him his throne. He was third Guru of Sikhs on 26 March 1552.
• Required visitors to Gurdwaras take Langar (Free Blessed Food) before seeing the Guru. "First Pangat then Sangat"
• Created the prayer ritual called Anand Sahib, which is one of the Five Banis recited daily
• Established the city of Goindval on the banks of river Bias in 1552.
• Contributed 907 hymns to the Sri Guru Granth Sahib!
• Visited and assigned Sikh missionaries to different parts of India.
• Divided the Sikh Sangat area into 22 branches called Manjis and appointed a local Sikh preacher for each location .
This great saint passed away on 1 sept 1554.
GURU RAM DAS JI
Guru Ram Das was born in 1534 of Choona Mandi situated at Lahore. He was also Kashtarya by Caste. As his parents passed away soon, his grand mother brought him up. His childhood name was Jetha ii.
He went to Goindwal to Sh. Guru Amar Das. Guru Amar Das and his wife were attracted towards charming personality of Jetha Ji. So, they married their younger daughter Bhani to him. Three sons Pirthi Chand, Mohan Dass and Arjun Dev were born to him. Guru Amar Das appointed him his successor. Thus Jetha Ji became Guru Ram Das, 4th Guru of Sikhs on 30 august 1574. He passed away on I sept. 1581.
GURU ARJUN DEV JI
This great man was born on 15th April 1563 at Goindwal, Amritsar in Guru Ram Das’s house to Bibi Bhani. He was brought up by his maternal grand-father Guru Amar Das. He got education in Hindi, Sanskrit and Persian.
Guru Arjun Dev’s greatest work was editing of Guru Granth Sahib. He got the foundation of Harmandir Sahib laid atAmritsar by a Muslim Faqir Sam Mian Mir. He also started Daswand and Masand custom. His most famous work is ‘Sukhmani Sahib’. He completed the construction of Amritsar and founded other cities such as Taran Taran and Kartarpur. He constructed a Baoli at Lahore. The most important work of Arjan Dev was the compilation of Adi Granth. He collected all the work of the first four Gurus and dictated it in the form of verses in 1604. He appointed Baba Budha Ji, who was a companion of Guru Nanak, and an associate of each of the subsequent Guru as the chief priest of the Golden Temple. He placed the Adi Granth on the Gaddi (throne) reserved for him, preferring to sit among his disciples.He was martyred on 30th May, 1606 by making him sit on hot plate by jahangir, because he supported his rebel son khusrau mirza.
GURU HARGOBIND JI
Guru Hargobind was born on 14th June, 1596 at Wadali near Amritsar. At the age of 11, he had to lead Sikhs because his father had been martyred. He wore two swords of Miri and Piri and gave a new policy to sikh religion. His relations with Mughals went on changing sometimes friendly and sometimes tense. He had friendly relations with Mughals, but sometimes he had to fight against them. He was 6th Guru of Sikhs. Jahangir could not tolerate the armed policy of Har Gobind and consequently imprisoned him, and ultimately released him. The relations between the Guru and Jahangir became friendly and continued to remain so.
During the reign of Shah Jahan, relations became bitter again, for Shah Jahan was intolerant. He destroyed the Sikh baoli at Lahore. The quarrels which originally started over hawks or horses between the Mughal officials and the Sikhs subsequently led to risings on a large scale and were responsible for the deaths of thousands of persons on both sides. Battles were fought at Amritsar, Kartarpur and elsewhere. He defeated the Imperial troops near Amritsar. Guru Har Gobind breathed his last, peacefully, at Kiratpur Rupnagar, Punjab on 2 March 1644.
• Transformed the Sikh fraternity by introducing martial arts and weapons for the defence of the masses following his father's martyrdom.
• Militarised the Sikh movement – carried two swords of Miri and Piri.
• Built the Akal Takht in 1608 – which is now one of five Takhts (Seats of Power) of the Sikhs.
• Founded the city of Kiratpur in District Jalandhar, Punjab.
• He was imprisoned in the fort of Gwalior for one year and on release insisted that 52 fellow prisoners be freed as well. To mark this occasion the Sikhs celebrate Bandi Chhor Divas.
• The first Guru to engage in warfare.
• Fought four battles against the Mughal rulers.
• The strongest and the biggest Guru physically.
• The city Hargobindpur, in Majha region of Punjab, is named after him, which he won over from Mughals after defeating them in a battle.
GURU HAR RAI JI
He was born at Kiratpur on 30th January, 1630. His father Baba Gurdita was eldest son of Guru Hargobind. Guru Hargobind had five sons - Baba Gurdita, Suraj Mal, Anirai, Baba Atal and Teg Bahadur. In 1643, feeling his time near, he appointed Gurdita’s Younger son Har Rai his successor. He was 7th Guru of sikhs. Guru Har Rai married Mata Kishan Kaur (sometimes also referred to as mata Sulakhni) the daughter of Sri Daya Ram of Anoopshahr (Bulandshahr) in Uttar Pradesh .Guru Har Rai had one daughter and two sons: Baba Ram Rai and Sri Har Krishan. Just before his death at age 31, Guru Har Rai passed the Gaddi of Nanak on to his younger son, the five year old—Guru Har Krishan.he passed away on 6 oct.1661.
GURU HAR KRISHAN JI
Guru Har Krishan was born on 7th july 1656 at Kiratpur Sahib, Rupnagar, Punjab.His mother’s name was Krishan Kaur and his father was Guru Har Rai. Guru Har Rai was against giving throne of Guruship to his eldest son Ram Rai, because he had showed cowardice in Mughal Court. So, he devoid Ram Rai’s right from Guruship and appointed his younger son Har Krishan his successor. Guru Har Knishan became 8th Guru of sikhs on 7 oct.1661. Ram Rai complained to the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Delhi that he had been passed over because of his loyalty to the emperor. He also claimed that he had not received his due share of his father's property. Ram Rai knew that before his death Har Rai had publicly instructed Har Krishan never to meet Aurengzeb. Ram Rai hoped if Har Krishan met the emperor, it would be against his father's wishes and the Sikhs would be displeased with their Guru. On the other hand, if Aurangzeb summoned Har Krishan to Delhi, and he refused to go, then Aurangzeb would send troops to compel him. Aurangzeb favored Ram Rai, and summoned Har Krishan to Delhi. The Sikhs were very apprehensive about young Har Krishan travelling to Delhi and appearing at court. To calm these worries, Aurangzeb sent Mirza Raja Jai Singh I to escort the Guru to Delhi. Mirza Raja Jai Singh I was a high court official and a Rajput ruler known for his devotion to the Sikh Gurus. When they reached Delhi, Har Krishan and his party were the guests of Raja Jai Singh. Every day, large numbers of Sikh devotees flocked to see the Guru. A smallpox epidemic was then raging in Delhi. Har Krishan helped to heal many sick people. Coming in contact with so many people every day, he too was infected and taken seriously ill. On March 30, 1664, Har Krishan decided to name his successor. He called for five coins and a coconut. He took them, and being too weak to move, waved his hand three times in the air, and said "Baba Bakala." Har Krishan then suddenly died at the age of eight.
One of the historic gurdwaras in India, the Bangla Sahib in Delhi was built on the site where Guru Har Krishan helped the sick, and where he also died himself of smallpox.
GURU TEG BAIHADUR JI
Guru Teg Bahadur was born in April, 1621 at Guru De Mahal at Amritsar. He was Youngest son of 6th Guru of Sikhs Guru Hargobind. At the time of his death, Guru Har Krishan caught five paisa and a coconut in his hands and said Baba Bakala, bowed his head and passed away. -
Bhai Makhan Shah Lubana, who was devotee to Gurus, his ship was caught in a tempest at sea. He prayed if his ship was saved, he would give 500 gold coins to Guru, His ship was saved. Makhan Shah Lubana came to Baba Bakala. He saw that many hypocrites were sitting and posing as Gurus. Makhan Shah started placing two gold coins before every Guru and bowed his head. They accepted gold coins. On asking some people he came to know that, Teg Bahadur was worshipping in an underground eel!. Makhan Shah placed two gold coins before him and bowed his head. Smiling Guru Teg Bahadur said that Bhai Makhan Shah You had promised 500 gold coins. Hearing so, Bhai Makhan Shah climbed the roof-top and shouted, “Guru Ladho Re! Guru Ladho Re !“ In this way real Guru was found. He became guru of Sikhism on 20march 1665. 1665A.D. a child Gobind Rai was born to him.
One day some Kashmiri Brahamins came to him and told him that officer of Mughal emperor was compelling them to change religion. Guru told that they could be saved from tyranny if some great man sacrificed his life. Gobind Rai said, “Father! Who is greater than you who can sacrifice his life at this time?”
Mughal emperor asked Guru either to show some miracle or become Muslim or get martyrdom. He was arrested, along with some of his followers, Bhai Dayala, Bhai Mati Das and Bhai Sati Das by Nur Muhammad Khan of the Rupnagar police post at the village Malikhpur Rangharan, in Ghanaula Parganah, and sent to Sirhind the following day. The Faujdar (Governor) of Sirhind, Dilawar Khan, ordered him to be detained in Bassi Pathana and reported the news to Delhi. His arrest was made in July 1675 and he was kept in custody for over three months. He was then cast in an iron cage and taken to Delhi in November 1675. The Guru was put in chains and ordered to be tortured until he would accept Islam. When he could not be persuaded to abandon his faith to save himself from persecution, he was asked to perform some miracles to prove his divinity. On his refusal, Guru Tegh Bahadur was beheaded in public at Chandni Chowk on 11 November 1675. Guru Ji is also known as "Hind Di Chadar" i.e. to save Hinduism, Guru Ji gave his life. The Gurdwara Sis Ganj Sahib in Chandni Chowk, Delhi, was built over where the Guru was beheaded, and Gurdwara Rakab Ganj Sahib, also in Delhi, is built on the site of the residence of Lakhi Shah Vanjara, a disciple of the Guru, who burnt his house in order to cremate the Guru's body.
GURU GOBIND SINGH JI
Guru Gobind Singh was 10th and last human Guru of Sikh. He was born in 1666 A.D. at Patna. He was only 9 years, when his father was martyred.
He created Khalsa at Anandpur Sahib on Baisakhi day in 1699 and gave nectar to sikhs. Guru fought many battles with Hill-Kings. His two elder Sons were killed in battle of Chamkaur and two younger sons were killed by bricking them into foundations of a wall at fatehgarh sahib.
Guru Nanak Dev was born in 1469 A.D. at Rai-Bhoe DI Taiwandi, Distt. Shekhu Pura, the place which is called Nankana Sahib or Gurudwara Janam Asthan. This sacred place is in Pakistan now-a-days. His mother’s name was Tripta and father’s name was Mehta Kalu. Guru was founder of Sikh religion. There was tyranny in the society, when Guru Nanak took birth. He was sent to a Pandit for studies at the age of 7, but Pandit was stunned on hearing his views.
At Sultan Pur Lodhi, he went to a rivulet (Bein), Where he got enlightenment. For the welfare of the world he took four voyages in all the four directions and preached truth to the people. Hindus called him Guru and Muslims called him Pir. He gave his throne to Bhai Lahina. who was known by the name of Guru Angad Dev later on. This great saint passed away on 7.11.1539. The earliest biographical sources on the life of Guru Nanak recognized today are the Janamsākhīs (life accounts) and the vārs (expounding verses) of the scribe Bhai Gurdas. The most popular Janamsākhī were allegedly written by a close companion of the Guru, Bhai Bala. However, the writing style and language employed have left scholars such as Max Arthur Macauliffe certain that they were composed after his death.
GURU ANGAD DEV JI
This great man was born on 31st March, 1504 at Harike village in Ferozepur District. His childhood name was Lahina. His father Ferumal was a general merchant and was Kshatriya by caste. He was married to Bibi Kheevi daughter of Sh. Devi Chand at the age of 15. He had two Sons Datu and Dassu and two daughters Amro and Anokhi.
Guru Nanak Dev tested him and appointed him his successor. He gave one coconut and five paisa to Angad Dev and bowed before him. In this way, Guru Angad Dev became second Guru of Sikhs. In 1538, Guru Nanak Dev Ji chose Lehna, his disciple, as a successor to the Guruship rather than one of his sons. Bhai Lehna was given the name Angad and designated Guru Angad Dev, becoming the second guru of the Sikhs. He continued the work started by the first Sikh Guru, Guru Nanak Dev Ji. He passed away 0n 28th march 1552 at Amritsar.
GURU AMAR DAS JI
Guru Amar Das was born at village Sabarke, distt. Amritsar on 5th May, 1479 in Baba Tej Bhan’s home. He was Kashatriya by caste. He had two sons Mohan and Mohri and two daughters Bibi Bhani and Bibi Dani.
He used to lead a pious life. Finally he come to the shelter of Guru Angad Dev and served him devotedly. Guru Angad Dev was highly influenced by him and finally gave him his throne. He was third Guru of Sikhs on 26 March 1552.
• Required visitors to Gurdwaras take Langar (Free Blessed Food) before seeing the Guru. "First Pangat then Sangat"
• Created the prayer ritual called Anand Sahib, which is one of the Five Banis recited daily
• Established the city of Goindval on the banks of river Bias in 1552.
• Contributed 907 hymns to the Sri Guru Granth Sahib!
• Visited and assigned Sikh missionaries to different parts of India.
• Divided the Sikh Sangat area into 22 branches called Manjis and appointed a local Sikh preacher for each location .
This great saint passed away on 1 sept 1554.
GURU RAM DAS JI
Guru Ram Das was born in 1534 of Choona Mandi situated at Lahore. He was also Kashtarya by Caste. As his parents passed away soon, his grand mother brought him up. His childhood name was Jetha ii.
He went to Goindwal to Sh. Guru Amar Das. Guru Amar Das and his wife were attracted towards charming personality of Jetha Ji. So, they married their younger daughter Bhani to him. Three sons Pirthi Chand, Mohan Dass and Arjun Dev were born to him. Guru Amar Das appointed him his successor. Thus Jetha Ji became Guru Ram Das, 4th Guru of Sikhs on 30 august 1574. He passed away on I sept. 1581.
GURU ARJUN DEV JI
This great man was born on 15th April 1563 at Goindwal, Amritsar in Guru Ram Das’s house to Bibi Bhani. He was brought up by his maternal grand-father Guru Amar Das. He got education in Hindi, Sanskrit and Persian.
Guru Arjun Dev’s greatest work was editing of Guru Granth Sahib. He got the foundation of Harmandir Sahib laid atAmritsar by a Muslim Faqir Sam Mian Mir. He also started Daswand and Masand custom. His most famous work is ‘Sukhmani Sahib’. He completed the construction of Amritsar and founded other cities such as Taran Taran and Kartarpur. He constructed a Baoli at Lahore. The most important work of Arjan Dev was the compilation of Adi Granth. He collected all the work of the first four Gurus and dictated it in the form of verses in 1604. He appointed Baba Budha Ji, who was a companion of Guru Nanak, and an associate of each of the subsequent Guru as the chief priest of the Golden Temple. He placed the Adi Granth on the Gaddi (throne) reserved for him, preferring to sit among his disciples.He was martyred on 30th May, 1606 by making him sit on hot plate by jahangir, because he supported his rebel son khusrau mirza.
GURU HARGOBIND JI
Guru Hargobind was born on 14th June, 1596 at Wadali near Amritsar. At the age of 11, he had to lead Sikhs because his father had been martyred. He wore two swords of Miri and Piri and gave a new policy to sikh religion. His relations with Mughals went on changing sometimes friendly and sometimes tense. He had friendly relations with Mughals, but sometimes he had to fight against them. He was 6th Guru of Sikhs. Jahangir could not tolerate the armed policy of Har Gobind and consequently imprisoned him, and ultimately released him. The relations between the Guru and Jahangir became friendly and continued to remain so.
During the reign of Shah Jahan, relations became bitter again, for Shah Jahan was intolerant. He destroyed the Sikh baoli at Lahore. The quarrels which originally started over hawks or horses between the Mughal officials and the Sikhs subsequently led to risings on a large scale and were responsible for the deaths of thousands of persons on both sides. Battles were fought at Amritsar, Kartarpur and elsewhere. He defeated the Imperial troops near Amritsar. Guru Har Gobind breathed his last, peacefully, at Kiratpur Rupnagar, Punjab on 2 March 1644.
• Transformed the Sikh fraternity by introducing martial arts and weapons for the defence of the masses following his father's martyrdom.
• Militarised the Sikh movement – carried two swords of Miri and Piri.
• Built the Akal Takht in 1608 – which is now one of five Takhts (Seats of Power) of the Sikhs.
• Founded the city of Kiratpur in District Jalandhar, Punjab.
• He was imprisoned in the fort of Gwalior for one year and on release insisted that 52 fellow prisoners be freed as well. To mark this occasion the Sikhs celebrate Bandi Chhor Divas.
• The first Guru to engage in warfare.
• Fought four battles against the Mughal rulers.
• The strongest and the biggest Guru physically.
• The city Hargobindpur, in Majha region of Punjab, is named after him, which he won over from Mughals after defeating them in a battle.
GURU HAR RAI JI
He was born at Kiratpur on 30th January, 1630. His father Baba Gurdita was eldest son of Guru Hargobind. Guru Hargobind had five sons - Baba Gurdita, Suraj Mal, Anirai, Baba Atal and Teg Bahadur. In 1643, feeling his time near, he appointed Gurdita’s Younger son Har Rai his successor. He was 7th Guru of sikhs. Guru Har Rai married Mata Kishan Kaur (sometimes also referred to as mata Sulakhni) the daughter of Sri Daya Ram of Anoopshahr (Bulandshahr) in Uttar Pradesh .Guru Har Rai had one daughter and two sons: Baba Ram Rai and Sri Har Krishan. Just before his death at age 31, Guru Har Rai passed the Gaddi of Nanak on to his younger son, the five year old—Guru Har Krishan.he passed away on 6 oct.1661.
GURU HAR KRISHAN JI
Guru Har Krishan was born on 7th july 1656 at Kiratpur Sahib, Rupnagar, Punjab.His mother’s name was Krishan Kaur and his father was Guru Har Rai. Guru Har Rai was against giving throne of Guruship to his eldest son Ram Rai, because he had showed cowardice in Mughal Court. So, he devoid Ram Rai’s right from Guruship and appointed his younger son Har Krishan his successor. Guru Har Knishan became 8th Guru of sikhs on 7 oct.1661. Ram Rai complained to the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Delhi that he had been passed over because of his loyalty to the emperor. He also claimed that he had not received his due share of his father's property. Ram Rai knew that before his death Har Rai had publicly instructed Har Krishan never to meet Aurengzeb. Ram Rai hoped if Har Krishan met the emperor, it would be against his father's wishes and the Sikhs would be displeased with their Guru. On the other hand, if Aurangzeb summoned Har Krishan to Delhi, and he refused to go, then Aurangzeb would send troops to compel him. Aurangzeb favored Ram Rai, and summoned Har Krishan to Delhi. The Sikhs were very apprehensive about young Har Krishan travelling to Delhi and appearing at court. To calm these worries, Aurangzeb sent Mirza Raja Jai Singh I to escort the Guru to Delhi. Mirza Raja Jai Singh I was a high court official and a Rajput ruler known for his devotion to the Sikh Gurus. When they reached Delhi, Har Krishan and his party were the guests of Raja Jai Singh. Every day, large numbers of Sikh devotees flocked to see the Guru. A smallpox epidemic was then raging in Delhi. Har Krishan helped to heal many sick people. Coming in contact with so many people every day, he too was infected and taken seriously ill. On March 30, 1664, Har Krishan decided to name his successor. He called for five coins and a coconut. He took them, and being too weak to move, waved his hand three times in the air, and said "Baba Bakala." Har Krishan then suddenly died at the age of eight.
One of the historic gurdwaras in India, the Bangla Sahib in Delhi was built on the site where Guru Har Krishan helped the sick, and where he also died himself of smallpox.
GURU TEG BAIHADUR JI
Guru Teg Bahadur was born in April, 1621 at Guru De Mahal at Amritsar. He was Youngest son of 6th Guru of Sikhs Guru Hargobind. At the time of his death, Guru Har Krishan caught five paisa and a coconut in his hands and said Baba Bakala, bowed his head and passed away. -
Bhai Makhan Shah Lubana, who was devotee to Gurus, his ship was caught in a tempest at sea. He prayed if his ship was saved, he would give 500 gold coins to Guru, His ship was saved. Makhan Shah Lubana came to Baba Bakala. He saw that many hypocrites were sitting and posing as Gurus. Makhan Shah started placing two gold coins before every Guru and bowed his head. They accepted gold coins. On asking some people he came to know that, Teg Bahadur was worshipping in an underground eel!. Makhan Shah placed two gold coins before him and bowed his head. Smiling Guru Teg Bahadur said that Bhai Makhan Shah You had promised 500 gold coins. Hearing so, Bhai Makhan Shah climbed the roof-top and shouted, “Guru Ladho Re! Guru Ladho Re !“ In this way real Guru was found. He became guru of Sikhism on 20march 1665. 1665A.D. a child Gobind Rai was born to him.
One day some Kashmiri Brahamins came to him and told him that officer of Mughal emperor was compelling them to change religion. Guru told that they could be saved from tyranny if some great man sacrificed his life. Gobind Rai said, “Father! Who is greater than you who can sacrifice his life at this time?”
Mughal emperor asked Guru either to show some miracle or become Muslim or get martyrdom. He was arrested, along with some of his followers, Bhai Dayala, Bhai Mati Das and Bhai Sati Das by Nur Muhammad Khan of the Rupnagar police post at the village Malikhpur Rangharan, in Ghanaula Parganah, and sent to Sirhind the following day. The Faujdar (Governor) of Sirhind, Dilawar Khan, ordered him to be detained in Bassi Pathana and reported the news to Delhi. His arrest was made in July 1675 and he was kept in custody for over three months. He was then cast in an iron cage and taken to Delhi in November 1675. The Guru was put in chains and ordered to be tortured until he would accept Islam. When he could not be persuaded to abandon his faith to save himself from persecution, he was asked to perform some miracles to prove his divinity. On his refusal, Guru Tegh Bahadur was beheaded in public at Chandni Chowk on 11 November 1675. Guru Ji is also known as "Hind Di Chadar" i.e. to save Hinduism, Guru Ji gave his life. The Gurdwara Sis Ganj Sahib in Chandni Chowk, Delhi, was built over where the Guru was beheaded, and Gurdwara Rakab Ganj Sahib, also in Delhi, is built on the site of the residence of Lakhi Shah Vanjara, a disciple of the Guru, who burnt his house in order to cremate the Guru's body.
GURU GOBIND SINGH JI
Guru Gobind Singh was 10th and last human Guru of Sikh. He was born in 1666 A.D. at Patna. He was only 9 years, when his father was martyred.
He created Khalsa at Anandpur Sahib on Baisakhi day in 1699 and gave nectar to sikhs. Guru fought many battles with Hill-Kings. His two elder Sons were killed in battle of Chamkaur and two younger sons were killed by bricking them into foundations of a wall at fatehgarh sahib.
Thursday, October 28, 2010
Geography of India ( By Arun Joshi,Sri-Krishna institute,9888933043)
Continent: Asia
Region: Southern Asia,Indian subcontinent
Coordinates: 20°00'N 77°00' E
Area: Ranked 7th
3,287,590 km²
1,269,345.60 miles²
90.44% land
9.56% water
Coastline: 7,516 km (4,670.23 miles)
Borders Total land borders:
14,103 km (8,763 miles)
Bangladesh:
4,053 km (2,520 miles)
Bhutan:
605 km (376 miles)
Myanmar:
1,463 km (909 miles)
China (PRC):
3,380 km (2,100 miles)
Nepal:
1,690 km (1,050 miles)
Pakistan:
2,912 km (1,809 miles)
Highest point:
Kanchenjunga8,598 m (28,209 ft)
Lowest point:
Kuttanad,−2.2 m (−7.2 ft)
Longest river: Ganges-Brahmaputra
Largest lake: Chilka Lake
The geography of India is extremely diverse, with landscape ranging from snow-capped mountain ranges to deserts, plains, rain forests, hills and plateaus. India comprises most of the Indian subcontinent situated on the Indian Plate, the northerly portion of the Indo-Australian Plate. Having a coastline of over 7,000 km (4,300 miles), most of India lies on a peninsula in southern Asia that protrudes into the Indian Ocean. India is bounded in the southwest by the Arabian Sea and in the southeast by the Bay of Bengal.
The fertile Indo-Gangetic plain occupies most of northern, central and eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern India. To the west of the country is the Thar Desert, which consists of a mix of rocky and sandy desert. India's east and northeastern border consists of the high Himalayan range. The highest point in India is disputed due to a territorial dispute with Pakistan; according to India's claim, the highest point (located in the disputed Kashmir territory) is K2, at 8,611 m (28,251 feet). The highest point in undisputed Indian territory is Kangchenjunga, at 8,598 m (28,208 feet). Climate ranges from equatorial in the far south, to tundra in the Himalayan altitudes.
India is bordered by Pakistan, the People's Republic of China, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and Afghanistan. Sri Lanka and the Maldives are island nations to the south of India. Politically, India is divided into 28 states, six federally administered union territories and a national capital territory. The political divisions generally follow linguistic and ethnic boundaries rather than geographic transitions.
Location and extent
India lies to the north of the equator between 8 degree 4 minutes and 37 degree 6 minutes north latitude and 68 degrees 7 minutes and 97 degrees 25 minutes east longitude. It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total land area of 3,287,590 km² (1,269,219 square miles). India measures 3,214 km (1,997 miles) from north to south and 2,933 km (1,822 miles) from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15,200 km (9,445 miles) and a coastline of 7,516.5 km (4,670.5 miles). The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea are parts of India.
India is bounded on the southwest by the Arabian Sea and on the southeast by the Bay of Bengal. On the north, northeast, and northwest are the Himalayas. Kanyakumari constitutes the southern tip of the Indian peninsula, which narrows before ending in the Indian Ocean.
Political geography
India is divided into 28 states (which are further subdivided into districts), six union territories and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. States have their own elected government, while Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union government.
States and territories of India States:
1. Andhra Pradesh
2. Arunachal Pradesh
3. Assam
4. Bihar
5. Chhattisgarh
6. Goa
7. Gujarat
8. Haryana
9. Himachal Pradesh
10. Jammu and Kashmir
11. Jharkhand
12. Karnataka
13. Kerala
14. Madhya Pradesh
15. Maharashtra
16. Manipur
17. Meghalaya
18. Mizoram
19. Nagaland
20. Orissa
21. Punjab
22. Rajasthan
23. Sikkim
24. Tamil Nadu
25. Tripura
26. Uttarakhand
27. Uttar Pradesh
28. West Bengal
Union Territories:
A. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
B. Chandigarh
C. Dadra and Nagar Haveli
D. Daman and Diu
E. Lakshadweep
F. Puducherry
G. National Capital Territory of Delhi
The state of Jammu and Kashmir is claimed by India but disputed by Pakistan and China, who administer parts of the territory. The state of Arunachal Pradesh is claimed by China but administered by India.
Geographical regions
India is divided into seven geographic regions. They are
1. The northern mountains including the Himalayas and the northeast mountain ranges.
2. Indo-Gangetic plains
3. Thar Desert
4. Central Highlands and Deccan Plateau
5. East Coast
6. West Coast
7. Bordering seas and islands
Mountains
A great arc of mountains, composed of the Himalaya, Hindu Kush, and Patkai ranges, define the Indian subcontinent. These mountains were formed by the ongoing tectonic collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate which started some 50 million years ago. These mountain ranges are home to some of the tallest mountains in the world and provide a natural barrier against the cold polar winds. They also facilitate the monsoons that drive climate in India. The protection and climatic control they have provided has been a geographical quality that has assisted India's position as a Great power. The numerous rivers that originate in these mountains provide water to the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains. These mountains are recognised by biogeographers as the boundary between two of the earth's great ecozones; the temperate Palearctic that covers most of Eurasia, and the tropical and subtropical Indomalaya ecozone that includes the Indian subcontinent and extend into Southeast Asia and Indonesia. Historically, these ranges have served as barriers to invaders.
India has seven major mountain ranges having peaks of over 1,000 m (3,300 feet). The Himalayas are the only mountain ranges to have snow-capped peaks. These ranges are:
1. Aravalli Range
2. Eastern Ghats
3. Himalayas
4. Patkai
5. Vindhya Range
6. Sahyadri or Western Ghats
7. Satpuras
8. Karakoram
The Himalaya mountain range is the world's highest mountain range. They form India's north-eastern border, separating it from the rest of Asia. The Himalayas are one of the world's youngest mountain ranges, and extend almost uninterrupted for a distance of 2,500 km (1,550 miles), covering an area of 500,000 km² (193,000 square miles).
The Himalayas extend from the state of Jammu and Kashmir in the west to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east. These states along with Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, and Sikkim lie mostly in the Himalayan region. Some of the Himalayan peaks range over 7,000 m (23,000 feet) and the snow line ranges between 6,000 m (19,600 feet) in Sikkim to around 3,000 m (9,850 feet) in Kashmir. Kangchenjunga, which lies in Sikkim, is the highest point in the country's territory (undisputed). Most peaks in the Himalayas remain snowbound throughout the year.
The Shiwalik, or lower Himalaya, consists of smaller hills towards the Indian side. Most of the rock formations are young and highly unstable, with landslides being a regular phenomenon during the rainy season. Many of India's hill stations are located on this range. The climate varies from sub tropical in the foothills to tundra at the higher elevations of these mountain ranges.
The mountains on India's eastern border with Myanmar are called as the Patkai or the Purvanchal. They were created by the same tectonic processes that resulted in the formation of the Himalaya. The features of the Patkai ranges are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: The Patkai-Bum, the Garo-Khasi-Jaintia, and the Lushai hills. The Garo-Khasi range is in the Indian state of Meghalaya. The climate ranges from temperate to alpine due to altitude. Cherrapunji, which lies on the windward side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall.
The Vindhya range runs across most of central India, covering a distance of 1,050 km (652 miles). The average elevation of these hills is 300 m (1,000 feet). They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created due to the weathering of the ancient Aravalli mountains. It geographically separates northern India from southern India. The western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with the state of Madhya Pradesh, and the range runs east and north nearly to the Ganges River at Mirzapur.
The Satpura Range is a range of hills in central India. It begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast, then runs east through Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and ends in the state of Chhattisgarh. It extends for a distance of 900 km with many of its peaks rising above 1000 m (3,300 feet). It is angular in shape, with its vertex at Ratnapuri and the two sides being parallel to the Tapti and Narmada river. It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north, and these two east-west ranges divide the Indo-Gangetic plain of northern India from the Deccan Plateau lying in the south. The Narmada runs in the depression between the Satpura and Vindhya ranges, and drains the northern slope of the Satpura range, running west towards the Arabian Sea.
The Aravalli range in Rajasthan.
The Aravalli Range is the oldest mountain range in India, running from northeast to southwest across Rajasthan in western India, extending approximately 500 km (310 miles). The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana, ending near Delhi. The highest peak is Mount Abu, rising to 1,722 m (5,653 feet), lying near the southwestern extremity of the range, close to the border with Gujarat. The city of Ajmer with its lake lies on the southern slope of the range in Rajasthan. The Aravalli Range is the eroded stub of an ancient folded mountain system that was once snow-capped. The range rose in a Precambrian event called the Aravalli-Delhi orogen. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian craton, the Marwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast. The present Aravalli range is only a remnant of the gigantic system that existed in prehistoric times with several of its sum mits rising above the snow line and nourishing glaciers of stupendous magnitude which in turn fed many great rivers.
Elevated regions in India.
The Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountains run along the western edge of India's Deccan Plateau, and separate the Deccan plateau from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea. The range starts south of the Tapti River near the border of Gujarat and Maharashtra, and runs approximately 1,600 km (1,000 miles) through the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, almost to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. The average elevation is around 1,000 m with the higher peaks occurring in the southern section in Nilgiris and in Kerala. The Anai Mudi in the Cardamom Hills at 2,695 m (8,841 feet) in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats.
The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains, which have been eroded and cut through by the four major rivers of southern India, the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri. These mountain ranges extend from West Bengal in the north, through Orissa and Andhra Pradesh to Tamil Nadu in the south. They run parallel to the Bay of Bengal and are not as tall as the Western Ghats, though some of its peaks are over 1000 m in height.
The Eastern and Western Ghats meet at the Nilgiri or Malay knot in Tamil Nadu. The Anai Mudi in the Cardamom Hills at 2,695 m (8,841 feet) in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats. The Nilgiris are considered to be a part of the Western Ghats.
Indo-Gangetic plain
The Indo-Gangetic plains are large floodplains of the Indus and the Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east, draining the states of Punjab, Haryana, eastern Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. The plains encompass an area of 700,000 km² (270,000 mile²) and vary in width through their length by several hundred kilometres. Major rivers that form a part of this system are the Ganga (Ganges) and Indus River along with their tributaries; Beas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej and Chenab.
The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat and mostly treeless, making it conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water sources. The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. Crops grown on the Indo-Gangetic Plain are primarily rice and wheat, grown in rotation. Other crops include maize, sugarcane and cotton. Also known as the Great Plains, the Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas. Water bodies of India are Indian ocean, Arabian sea, bay of bengal.
The Thar Desert (also known as the Great Indian Desert) is a hot desert that forms a significant portion of western India. Spread over four states in India – Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat it covers an area of 208,110 km² (80,350 mile²). The desert continues into Pakistan as the Cholistan Desert. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan, covering 61% of its geographic area. Most of the desert is rocky, with a small part of the extreme west of the desert being sandy. The origin of the Thar Desert is uncertain. Some geologists consider it to be 4,000 to 10,000 years old, whereas others state that aridity began in this region much earlier. The area is characterised by extreme temperatures of above 45 °C (113 °F) in summer to below freezing in winters. Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120 mm (4.72 inches) in the extreme west to 375 mm (14.75 inches) eastward. The lack of rainfall is mainly due to the unique position of the desert with respect to the Aravalli range.
The desert lies in the rain shadow area of the Bay of Bengal arm of the southwest monsoon. The parallel nature of the range to the Arabian Sea arm also means that the desert does not receive much rainfall.
The desert can be divided into two regions, the great Desert and the little desert. The great Desert extends northwards from the edge of the Rann of Kutch region of Gujarat. The little desert extends from the River Luni between the towns of Jodhpur and Jaisalmer, up to the northern areas. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary according to the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier and may have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum. Due to the low population density, the effect of the population on the environment is relatively less compared to the rest of India.
The Central Highlands are composed of three main plateaus – the Malwa Plateau in the west, the Deccan Plateau in the south, (covering most of the Indian peninsula); and the Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand towards the east.
The Deccan plateau is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats. The Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 million km² (735,000 mile²). It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from 300 to 600 m (1,000 to 2,000 feet).
The name Deccan comes from the Sanskrit word dakshina, which means "the south". The plateau slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several peninsular rivers such as the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri and the Narmada. This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both Ghats. Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest scattered with small regions of deciduous broadleaf forest. Climate ranges from hot summers to mild winters.
The Chota Nagpur Plateau is a plateau in eastern India, which covers much of Jharkhand state as well as adjacent parts of Orissa, Bihar, and Chhattisgarh.
The total area of Chota Nagpur Plateau is approximately 65,000 km² (25,000 mile²). The Chota Nagpur Plateau is made up of three smaller plateaus, the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. The Ranchi plateau is the largest of the plateaus, with an average elevation of 700 m (2,300 feet). Much of the plateau is forested, covered by the Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests. The plateau is famous for its vast reserves of ores and coal. Besides the Great Indian peninsula, the Kathiawar Peninsula in Gujarat is another large peninsula of India.
The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the north. Deltas of many of India's rivers form a major portion of these plains. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri and Krishna rivers drain these plains. The region receives both the Northeast and Southwest monsoon rains with its annual rainfall averaging between 1,000 mm (40 in) and 3,000 mm (120 in). The width of the plains varies between 100 to 130 km (62 to 80 miles).
The plains are divided into six regions: The Mahanadi delta; the southern Andhra Pradesh plain; the Krishna Godavari deltas; the Kanyakumari coast; Coromandel Coast and sandy littoral.
The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. The strip begins in Gujarat in the north and extends across the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. The plains are narrow, and range from 50 to 100 km (30 to 60 miles) in width. Small rivers and numerous backwaters inundate the region. The rivers, which originate in the Western Ghats, are fast flowing and are mostly perennial. The fast flowing nature of the rivers results in the formation of estuaries rather than deltas. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapi, Narmada, Mandovi and Zuari.
The coast is divided into three regions. The northern region of Maharashtra and Goa is known as the Konkan Coast, the central region of Karnataka is known as the Kanara Coast and the southern coastline of Kerala is known as the Malabar Coast. Vegetation in this region is mostly deciduous. The Malabar Coast has its own unique ecoregion known as the Malabar Coast moist forests.
India has two major offshore island possessions: the Lakshadweep islands and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Both these island groups are administered by the Union government of India as Union Territories. The Lakshadweep islands lie 200 to 300 km (124 to 186 miles) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian Sea. It consists of twelve coral atolls, three coral reefs, and five banks. Ten of these islands are inhabited.
The Andaman and Nicobar island chain lies in the Bay of Bengal near the Myanmar coast. It is located 950 km (590 miles) from Kolkata (Calcutta) and 193 km (120 miles) from Cape Negrais in Myanmar. The territory consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands. The Andaman islands consist of 204 islands having a total length of 352 km (220 miles). The Nicobar Islands, which lie south of the Andamans, consists of twenty-two islands with a total area of 1,841 km² (710 mile²). The highest point is Mount Thullier at 642 m (2,140 feet). Indira Point, India's southernmost land point is situated in the Nicobar islands, and lies just 189 km (117 miles) from the Indonesian island of Sumatra to the southeast.
Significant islands just off the Indian coast include Diu, a former Portuguese exclave; Majuli, Asia's largest freshwater island; Salcette Island, India's most populous island, on which Mumbai (Bombay) city is located; Elephanta in Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota barrier island in Andhra Pradesh.
Region: Southern Asia,Indian subcontinent
Coordinates: 20°00'N 77°00' E
Area: Ranked 7th
3,287,590 km²
1,269,345.60 miles²
90.44% land
9.56% water
Coastline: 7,516 km (4,670.23 miles)
Borders Total land borders:
14,103 km (8,763 miles)
Bangladesh:
4,053 km (2,520 miles)
Bhutan:
605 km (376 miles)
Myanmar:
1,463 km (909 miles)
China (PRC):
3,380 km (2,100 miles)
Nepal:
1,690 km (1,050 miles)
Pakistan:
2,912 km (1,809 miles)
Highest point:
Kanchenjunga8,598 m (28,209 ft)
Lowest point:
Kuttanad,−2.2 m (−7.2 ft)
Longest river: Ganges-Brahmaputra
Largest lake: Chilka Lake
The geography of India is extremely diverse, with landscape ranging from snow-capped mountain ranges to deserts, plains, rain forests, hills and plateaus. India comprises most of the Indian subcontinent situated on the Indian Plate, the northerly portion of the Indo-Australian Plate. Having a coastline of over 7,000 km (4,300 miles), most of India lies on a peninsula in southern Asia that protrudes into the Indian Ocean. India is bounded in the southwest by the Arabian Sea and in the southeast by the Bay of Bengal.
The fertile Indo-Gangetic plain occupies most of northern, central and eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern India. To the west of the country is the Thar Desert, which consists of a mix of rocky and sandy desert. India's east and northeastern border consists of the high Himalayan range. The highest point in India is disputed due to a territorial dispute with Pakistan; according to India's claim, the highest point (located in the disputed Kashmir territory) is K2, at 8,611 m (28,251 feet). The highest point in undisputed Indian territory is Kangchenjunga, at 8,598 m (28,208 feet). Climate ranges from equatorial in the far south, to tundra in the Himalayan altitudes.
India is bordered by Pakistan, the People's Republic of China, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and Afghanistan. Sri Lanka and the Maldives are island nations to the south of India. Politically, India is divided into 28 states, six federally administered union territories and a national capital territory. The political divisions generally follow linguistic and ethnic boundaries rather than geographic transitions.
Location and extent
India lies to the north of the equator between 8 degree 4 minutes and 37 degree 6 minutes north latitude and 68 degrees 7 minutes and 97 degrees 25 minutes east longitude. It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total land area of 3,287,590 km² (1,269,219 square miles). India measures 3,214 km (1,997 miles) from north to south and 2,933 km (1,822 miles) from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15,200 km (9,445 miles) and a coastline of 7,516.5 km (4,670.5 miles). The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea are parts of India.
India is bounded on the southwest by the Arabian Sea and on the southeast by the Bay of Bengal. On the north, northeast, and northwest are the Himalayas. Kanyakumari constitutes the southern tip of the Indian peninsula, which narrows before ending in the Indian Ocean.
Political geography
India is divided into 28 states (which are further subdivided into districts), six union territories and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. States have their own elected government, while Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union government.
States and territories of India States:
1. Andhra Pradesh
2. Arunachal Pradesh
3. Assam
4. Bihar
5. Chhattisgarh
6. Goa
7. Gujarat
8. Haryana
9. Himachal Pradesh
10. Jammu and Kashmir
11. Jharkhand
12. Karnataka
13. Kerala
14. Madhya Pradesh
15. Maharashtra
16. Manipur
17. Meghalaya
18. Mizoram
19. Nagaland
20. Orissa
21. Punjab
22. Rajasthan
23. Sikkim
24. Tamil Nadu
25. Tripura
26. Uttarakhand
27. Uttar Pradesh
28. West Bengal
Union Territories:
A. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
B. Chandigarh
C. Dadra and Nagar Haveli
D. Daman and Diu
E. Lakshadweep
F. Puducherry
G. National Capital Territory of Delhi
The state of Jammu and Kashmir is claimed by India but disputed by Pakistan and China, who administer parts of the territory. The state of Arunachal Pradesh is claimed by China but administered by India.
Geographical regions
India is divided into seven geographic regions. They are
1. The northern mountains including the Himalayas and the northeast mountain ranges.
2. Indo-Gangetic plains
3. Thar Desert
4. Central Highlands and Deccan Plateau
5. East Coast
6. West Coast
7. Bordering seas and islands
Mountains
A great arc of mountains, composed of the Himalaya, Hindu Kush, and Patkai ranges, define the Indian subcontinent. These mountains were formed by the ongoing tectonic collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate which started some 50 million years ago. These mountain ranges are home to some of the tallest mountains in the world and provide a natural barrier against the cold polar winds. They also facilitate the monsoons that drive climate in India. The protection and climatic control they have provided has been a geographical quality that has assisted India's position as a Great power. The numerous rivers that originate in these mountains provide water to the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains. These mountains are recognised by biogeographers as the boundary between two of the earth's great ecozones; the temperate Palearctic that covers most of Eurasia, and the tropical and subtropical Indomalaya ecozone that includes the Indian subcontinent and extend into Southeast Asia and Indonesia. Historically, these ranges have served as barriers to invaders.
India has seven major mountain ranges having peaks of over 1,000 m (3,300 feet). The Himalayas are the only mountain ranges to have snow-capped peaks. These ranges are:
1. Aravalli Range
2. Eastern Ghats
3. Himalayas
4. Patkai
5. Vindhya Range
6. Sahyadri or Western Ghats
7. Satpuras
8. Karakoram
The Himalaya mountain range is the world's highest mountain range. They form India's north-eastern border, separating it from the rest of Asia. The Himalayas are one of the world's youngest mountain ranges, and extend almost uninterrupted for a distance of 2,500 km (1,550 miles), covering an area of 500,000 km² (193,000 square miles).
The Himalayas extend from the state of Jammu and Kashmir in the west to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east. These states along with Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, and Sikkim lie mostly in the Himalayan region. Some of the Himalayan peaks range over 7,000 m (23,000 feet) and the snow line ranges between 6,000 m (19,600 feet) in Sikkim to around 3,000 m (9,850 feet) in Kashmir. Kangchenjunga, which lies in Sikkim, is the highest point in the country's territory (undisputed). Most peaks in the Himalayas remain snowbound throughout the year.
The Shiwalik, or lower Himalaya, consists of smaller hills towards the Indian side. Most of the rock formations are young and highly unstable, with landslides being a regular phenomenon during the rainy season. Many of India's hill stations are located on this range. The climate varies from sub tropical in the foothills to tundra at the higher elevations of these mountain ranges.
The mountains on India's eastern border with Myanmar are called as the Patkai or the Purvanchal. They were created by the same tectonic processes that resulted in the formation of the Himalaya. The features of the Patkai ranges are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: The Patkai-Bum, the Garo-Khasi-Jaintia, and the Lushai hills. The Garo-Khasi range is in the Indian state of Meghalaya. The climate ranges from temperate to alpine due to altitude. Cherrapunji, which lies on the windward side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall.
The Vindhya range runs across most of central India, covering a distance of 1,050 km (652 miles). The average elevation of these hills is 300 m (1,000 feet). They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created due to the weathering of the ancient Aravalli mountains. It geographically separates northern India from southern India. The western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with the state of Madhya Pradesh, and the range runs east and north nearly to the Ganges River at Mirzapur.
The Satpura Range is a range of hills in central India. It begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast, then runs east through Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and ends in the state of Chhattisgarh. It extends for a distance of 900 km with many of its peaks rising above 1000 m (3,300 feet). It is angular in shape, with its vertex at Ratnapuri and the two sides being parallel to the Tapti and Narmada river. It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north, and these two east-west ranges divide the Indo-Gangetic plain of northern India from the Deccan Plateau lying in the south. The Narmada runs in the depression between the Satpura and Vindhya ranges, and drains the northern slope of the Satpura range, running west towards the Arabian Sea.
The Aravalli range in Rajasthan.
The Aravalli Range is the oldest mountain range in India, running from northeast to southwest across Rajasthan in western India, extending approximately 500 km (310 miles). The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana, ending near Delhi. The highest peak is Mount Abu, rising to 1,722 m (5,653 feet), lying near the southwestern extremity of the range, close to the border with Gujarat. The city of Ajmer with its lake lies on the southern slope of the range in Rajasthan. The Aravalli Range is the eroded stub of an ancient folded mountain system that was once snow-capped. The range rose in a Precambrian event called the Aravalli-Delhi orogen. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian craton, the Marwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast. The present Aravalli range is only a remnant of the gigantic system that existed in prehistoric times with several of its sum mits rising above the snow line and nourishing glaciers of stupendous magnitude which in turn fed many great rivers.
Elevated regions in India.
The Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountains run along the western edge of India's Deccan Plateau, and separate the Deccan plateau from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea. The range starts south of the Tapti River near the border of Gujarat and Maharashtra, and runs approximately 1,600 km (1,000 miles) through the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, almost to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. The average elevation is around 1,000 m with the higher peaks occurring in the southern section in Nilgiris and in Kerala. The Anai Mudi in the Cardamom Hills at 2,695 m (8,841 feet) in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats.
The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains, which have been eroded and cut through by the four major rivers of southern India, the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri. These mountain ranges extend from West Bengal in the north, through Orissa and Andhra Pradesh to Tamil Nadu in the south. They run parallel to the Bay of Bengal and are not as tall as the Western Ghats, though some of its peaks are over 1000 m in height.
The Eastern and Western Ghats meet at the Nilgiri or Malay knot in Tamil Nadu. The Anai Mudi in the Cardamom Hills at 2,695 m (8,841 feet) in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats. The Nilgiris are considered to be a part of the Western Ghats.
Indo-Gangetic plain
The Indo-Gangetic plains are large floodplains of the Indus and the Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east, draining the states of Punjab, Haryana, eastern Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. The plains encompass an area of 700,000 km² (270,000 mile²) and vary in width through their length by several hundred kilometres. Major rivers that form a part of this system are the Ganga (Ganges) and Indus River along with their tributaries; Beas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej and Chenab.
The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat and mostly treeless, making it conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water sources. The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. Crops grown on the Indo-Gangetic Plain are primarily rice and wheat, grown in rotation. Other crops include maize, sugarcane and cotton. Also known as the Great Plains, the Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas. Water bodies of India are Indian ocean, Arabian sea, bay of bengal.
The Thar Desert (also known as the Great Indian Desert) is a hot desert that forms a significant portion of western India. Spread over four states in India – Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat it covers an area of 208,110 km² (80,350 mile²). The desert continues into Pakistan as the Cholistan Desert. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan, covering 61% of its geographic area. Most of the desert is rocky, with a small part of the extreme west of the desert being sandy. The origin of the Thar Desert is uncertain. Some geologists consider it to be 4,000 to 10,000 years old, whereas others state that aridity began in this region much earlier. The area is characterised by extreme temperatures of above 45 °C (113 °F) in summer to below freezing in winters. Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120 mm (4.72 inches) in the extreme west to 375 mm (14.75 inches) eastward. The lack of rainfall is mainly due to the unique position of the desert with respect to the Aravalli range.
The desert lies in the rain shadow area of the Bay of Bengal arm of the southwest monsoon. The parallel nature of the range to the Arabian Sea arm also means that the desert does not receive much rainfall.
The desert can be divided into two regions, the great Desert and the little desert. The great Desert extends northwards from the edge of the Rann of Kutch region of Gujarat. The little desert extends from the River Luni between the towns of Jodhpur and Jaisalmer, up to the northern areas. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary according to the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier and may have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum. Due to the low population density, the effect of the population on the environment is relatively less compared to the rest of India.
The Central Highlands are composed of three main plateaus – the Malwa Plateau in the west, the Deccan Plateau in the south, (covering most of the Indian peninsula); and the Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand towards the east.
The Deccan plateau is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats. The Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 million km² (735,000 mile²). It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from 300 to 600 m (1,000 to 2,000 feet).
The name Deccan comes from the Sanskrit word dakshina, which means "the south". The plateau slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several peninsular rivers such as the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri and the Narmada. This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both Ghats. Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest scattered with small regions of deciduous broadleaf forest. Climate ranges from hot summers to mild winters.
The Chota Nagpur Plateau is a plateau in eastern India, which covers much of Jharkhand state as well as adjacent parts of Orissa, Bihar, and Chhattisgarh.
The total area of Chota Nagpur Plateau is approximately 65,000 km² (25,000 mile²). The Chota Nagpur Plateau is made up of three smaller plateaus, the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. The Ranchi plateau is the largest of the plateaus, with an average elevation of 700 m (2,300 feet). Much of the plateau is forested, covered by the Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests. The plateau is famous for its vast reserves of ores and coal. Besides the Great Indian peninsula, the Kathiawar Peninsula in Gujarat is another large peninsula of India.
The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the north. Deltas of many of India's rivers form a major portion of these plains. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri and Krishna rivers drain these plains. The region receives both the Northeast and Southwest monsoon rains with its annual rainfall averaging between 1,000 mm (40 in) and 3,000 mm (120 in). The width of the plains varies between 100 to 130 km (62 to 80 miles).
The plains are divided into six regions: The Mahanadi delta; the southern Andhra Pradesh plain; the Krishna Godavari deltas; the Kanyakumari coast; Coromandel Coast and sandy littoral.
The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. The strip begins in Gujarat in the north and extends across the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. The plains are narrow, and range from 50 to 100 km (30 to 60 miles) in width. Small rivers and numerous backwaters inundate the region. The rivers, which originate in the Western Ghats, are fast flowing and are mostly perennial. The fast flowing nature of the rivers results in the formation of estuaries rather than deltas. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapi, Narmada, Mandovi and Zuari.
The coast is divided into three regions. The northern region of Maharashtra and Goa is known as the Konkan Coast, the central region of Karnataka is known as the Kanara Coast and the southern coastline of Kerala is known as the Malabar Coast. Vegetation in this region is mostly deciduous. The Malabar Coast has its own unique ecoregion known as the Malabar Coast moist forests.
India has two major offshore island possessions: the Lakshadweep islands and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Both these island groups are administered by the Union government of India as Union Territories. The Lakshadweep islands lie 200 to 300 km (124 to 186 miles) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian Sea. It consists of twelve coral atolls, three coral reefs, and five banks. Ten of these islands are inhabited.
The Andaman and Nicobar island chain lies in the Bay of Bengal near the Myanmar coast. It is located 950 km (590 miles) from Kolkata (Calcutta) and 193 km (120 miles) from Cape Negrais in Myanmar. The territory consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands. The Andaman islands consist of 204 islands having a total length of 352 km (220 miles). The Nicobar Islands, which lie south of the Andamans, consists of twenty-two islands with a total area of 1,841 km² (710 mile²). The highest point is Mount Thullier at 642 m (2,140 feet). Indira Point, India's southernmost land point is situated in the Nicobar islands, and lies just 189 km (117 miles) from the Indonesian island of Sumatra to the southeast.
Significant islands just off the Indian coast include Diu, a former Portuguese exclave; Majuli, Asia's largest freshwater island; Salcette Island, India's most populous island, on which Mumbai (Bombay) city is located; Elephanta in Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota barrier island in Andhra Pradesh.
Sunday, October 24, 2010
PRESIDENT OF INDIA(By Arun Joshi,Sri-Krishna Institute,9888933043)
Article 79 states that the Union Parliament shall consist of the President and the two Houses - Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. Here our Constitution departs from the theory of separation of power (as given by Montesquieu). The President of India is often regarded as the conscience-keeper of the nation by adding a sobering effect to the democratic fervor of our political system. The President of India is neither a real executive like the US President nor only a ceremonial head like the British monarch. Article 53 vests the executive powers of the Union in the President.
That is, all executive decisions of the Union are taken in the name of the President. These executive decisions, which are administrative in nature, are carried out by the different ministries and departments of the Government.
The President of India is the head of state and first citizen of India, as well as the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces. Despite Article 53 of the Constitution stating the President can exercise their powers directly, with few exceptions, all of the authority vested in the President is in practice exercised by the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister.
The President is elected by the elected members of the Parliament of India (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) as well as of the state legislatures (Vidhan Sabhas), and serves for a term of five years. Incumbents are permitted to stand for re-election. A formula is used to allocate votes so there is a balance between the population of each state and the number of votes assembly members from a state can cast, and to give an equal balance between State Assembly members and National Parliament members. If no candidate receives a majority of votes there is a system by which losing candidates are eliminated from the contest and votes for them transferred to other candidates, until one gains a majority. The Vice-President is elected by a direct vote of all members (elected and nominated) of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
The president of India resides in an estate in New Delhi known as the Rashtrapati Bhavan. The presidential retreat is The Retreat in Chharabra, Shimla and Rashtrapati Nilayam (President's Place) in Hyderabad.
The 12th President of India is Her Excellency Pratibha Devisingh Patil, the first woman to serve in the office, who was sworn in on 25 July 2007
India became formally independent from the United Kingdom on 15 August 1947 .
With the Constitution of India coming into effect on 26 January, 1950, under Article 52 , Part V, the office of the President of India was established, with Dr. Rajendra Prasad as its first occupant.
Powers and Duties
Legislative powers
The President summons both houses of the Parliament and prorogues them. He or she can even dissolve the Lok Sabha. These powers are formal, and by convention, the President uses these powers according to the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister.
They inaugurate the Parliament by addressing it after the general elections and also at the beginning of the first session each year. Their address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government.
A bill that the Parliament has passed can become a law only after the President gives his/her assent to it. The President can return a bill to the Parliament, if it is not a money bill, for reconsideration. However, if the Parliament sends it back to them for the second time, the President is obliged to assent to it.
When the Parliament is not in session and the government considers it necessary to have a law, then the President can promulgate ordinances. These ordinances are submitted to the Parliament at its next session. They remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the Parliament is convened unless approved by it earlier.
Article 52 Executive powers
The Constitution vests in the President of India all the executive powers of the Central Government. The President appoints the Prime Minister the person most likely to command the support of the majority in the Lok Sabha (usually the leader of the majority party or coalition). The President then appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios to them on the advice of the Prime Minister.
The Council of Ministers remains in power during the 'pleasure' of the President. In practice, however, the Council of Ministers must retain the support of the Lok Sabha. If a President were to dismiss the Council of Ministers on his or her own initiative, it might trigger a constitutional crisis. Thus, in practice, the Council of Ministers cannot be dismissed as long as it commands the support of a majority in the Lok Sabha.
The President is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. These include:
• Governors of States
• The Chief Justice, other judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts of India.
• The Attorney General
• The Comptroller and Auditor General
• The Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners
• The Chairman and other Members of the Union Public Service Commission
• Ambassadors and High Commissioners to other countries.
The President also receives the credentials of Ambassadors and High Commissioners from other countries.
The President is the de jure Commander in Chief of the Indian Armed Forces.
The President of India can grant a pardon to or reduce the sentence of a convicted person for one time, particularly in cases involving punishment of death.
The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the president are independent of the opinion of the Prime Minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most other cases, however, the President exercises his or her executive powers on the advice of the Prime Minister.
Financial powers
Money bills can be introduced in the Parliament only on the prior recommendation of the President. He/she also causes to be laid before the Parliament the annual financial statement which is the Union Budget. Further no demand for grant shall be made except on his recommendation. He/She can also make advances out of the Contingency Fund of India to meet any unforeseen expenditure. Moreover, he\she constitutes the Finance Commission every 5 years to recommend the distribution of taxes between the States and the Centre.
Judicial powers
The president appoints the Chief Justice of the Union Judiciary and other judges on the advice of the Chief Justice. In practice, these judges are actually selected by the Union cabinet. The President dismisses the judges if and only if the two Houses of the Parliament pass resolutions to that effect by two-thirds majority of the members present.
If they consider a question of law or a matter of public importance has arisen they can ask for the advisory opinion of the Supreme Court. He may or may not accept that opinion.
He/She has the right to grant pardon. He/She can suspend, remit or commute the death sentence of any person..
President Judicial Powers
The President's pardoning power comprises a group of analogous powers:
1. Pardon: It rescinds both the sentence and the conviction and completely absolves the offender from all punishments and disqualifications.
2. Reprieve: It means a stay of execution of sentence pending a proceeding for pardon or commutation.
3. Remission: The power of remission reduces the amount of sentence without changing its character. E.g., a sentence of imprisonment for one year may be remitted for six months.
4. Respite: The power to grant respite means awarding a lesser sentence instead of the prescribed penalty in view of some special facts. E.g., pregnancy of the woman offender.
5. Commutation: It merely substitutes one form of the punishment for another of a lighter character - death by transportation, transportation by rigorous imprisonment, rigorous imprisonment by simple imprisonment, and simple imprisonment by fine and so on.
He/She enjoys the judicial immunity:
• No criminal proceedings can be initiated against him/her during his term in office.
• He/She is not answerable for the exercise of his duties.
Diplomatic powers
All international treaties and agreements are negotiated and concluded on behalf of the President. However, in practice, such negotiations are usually carried out by the Prime Minister along with his Cabinet (especially the Foreign Minister). Also, such treaties are subject to the approval of the Parliament. The President represents India in international forums and affairs where such a function is chiefly ceremonial. The President may also send and receive diplomats like Ambassadors and High Commissioners.
Military powers
The President is the supreme commander of the defence forces of India, in this capacity the president can appoint Army, Navy & Air Chiefs. The President can declare war or conclude peace, subject to the approval of parliament only under the decision of the Council of Ministers
Emergency powers
The President can declare three types of emergencies: national, state and financial.
National emergency
National emergency is caused by war, external aggression or armed rebellion in the whole of India or a part of its territory. Such an emergency was declared in India in 1962 (Indo-China war), 1971 (Indo-Pakistan war), 1975 to 1977 (declared by Indira Gandhi on account of "internal disturbance").
Under Article 352 of the India Constitution the President can declare such an emergency only on the basis of a written request by the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. Such a proclamation must be approved by the Parliament within one month. Such an emergency can be imposed for six months. It can be extended by six months by repeated parliamentary approval, up to a maximum of 3 Years.
In such an emergency, Fundamental Rights of Indian citizens can be suspended. The six freedoms under Right to Freedom are automatically suspended. However, the Right to Life and Personal Liberty cannot be suspended.
The Parliament can make laws on the 66 subjects of the State List (which contains subjects on which the state governments can make laws). Also, all money bills are referred to the Parliament for its approval. The term of the Lok Sabha can be extended by a period of up to one year, but not so as to extend the term of Parliament beyond six months after the end of the declared emergency.
State emergency
State emergency, also known as President's rule, is declared due to breakdown of constitutional machinery in a state.
If the President is satisfied, on the basis of the report of the Governor of the concerned state or from other sources that the governance in a state cannot be carried out according to the provisions in the Constitution, he/she can declare a state of emergency in the state. Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within a period of six months.
Under Article 356 of the Indian Constitution, it can be imposed from six months to a maximum period of three years with repeated parliamentary approval every six months. If the emergency needs to be extended for more than three years, this can be achieved by a constitutional amendment, as has happened in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir.
During such an emergency, the President can take over the entire work of the executive, and the Governor administers the state in the name of the President. The Legislative Assembly can be dissolved or may remain in suspended animation. The Parliament makes laws on the 66 subjects of the state list (see National emergency for explanation). All money bills have to be referred to the Parliament for approval.
On 19 January 2009, President's rule was imposed on the Indian State of Jharkhand making it the latest state where this kind of emergency has been imposed.
A State Emergency can be imposed via the following:
1. By Article 356:-If that state failed to run constitutionally i.e. constitutional machinery has failed
2. By Article 365:-If that state is not working according to the given direction of the Union Government.
This type of emergency needs the approval of the parliament within 2 months. This type of emergency can last up to a maximum of 3 years via extensions after each 6 month period. However, after one year it can be extended only if
1. A state of National Emergency has been declared in the country or in the particular state.
2. The Election Commission finds it difficult to organize an election in that state.
Financial emergency
If the President is satisfied that there is an economic situation in which the financial stability or credit of India is threatened, he/she can proclaim financial emergency as per the Constitutional Article 360. Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within two months. It has never been declared. On a previous occasion, the financial stability or credit of India has indeed been threatened, but a financial emergency was avoided through the selling off of India's gold reserves.
A state of financial emergency remains in force indefinitely until revoked by the President.
In case of a financial emergency, the President can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts. All money bills are passed by the State legislatures are submitted to the President for his approval. They can direct the state to observe certain principles (economy measures) relating to financial matters.
Selection Process
Eligibility
Article 58 of the Constituion sets the principle qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the office of the President. A President must be :
• a citizen of India
• of 35 years of age or above
• qualified to become a member of the Lok Sabha
A person shall not be eligible for election as President if he holds any office of profit under the Government of India or the Government of any State or under any local or other authority subject to the control of any of the said Governments.
Certain office-holders, however, are permitted to stand as Presidential candidates. These are:
• The current Vice President.
• The Governor of any State.
• A Minister of the Union or of any State.
In the event that the Vice President, a State Governor or a Minister is elected President, they are considered to have vacated their previous office on the date they begin serving as President.
Conditions for Presidency
Certain conditions, as per Article 59 of the Constitution, debar any eligible citizen from contesting the presidential elections. The conditions are :
• The President shall not be a member of either House of Parliament or of a House of the Legislature of any State,and if a member of either House of Parliament or of a House of the Legislature of any State be elected President, he shall be deemed to have vacated his seat in that House on the date on which he enters upon his office as President.
• The President shall not hold any other office of profit.
• The President shall be entitled without payment of rent to the use of his official residences and shall be also entitled to such emoluments, allowances and privileges as may be determined by Parliament by law and until provision in that behalf is so made, such emoluments, allowances and privileges as are specified in the Second Schedule.
• The emoluments and allowances of the President shall not be diminished during his term of office.
Election of the President
Whenever the office becomes vacant, the new president is chosen by an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both houses of the Parliament and the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies (Vidhan Sabha).
The election is held in accordance to the system of Proportional Representation by means of Single Transferable Vote method. The Voting takes place by secret ballot system. The manner of election of President is provided by Article 55.
The formula adopted to secure uniformity among the States is as follows:
Value of Vote of an MLA = State Population / (1000' Total no. of elected MLA's)
On the basis of the above formula, the value of the vote of an MLA from UP has the highest value and that from Sikkim the lowest.
The formula adopted to secure uniformity between all the States on one hand and the Parliament on the other is as follows:
Value of Vote of an MP = Total value of votes of MLA's of all States / Total no. of elected MP's (LS + RS)
The 1971 census is currently under consideration.
The election is held through the system of proportional representation by means of the single - transferable vote by secret ballot.
The candidate who gets 50% of votes is considered elected.
Constitutional role
Constitutional role of the Indian Constitution states "There shall be a President of India". Article 53(1) vests in the President the executive powers of the Union which are exercised either directly or through subordinate officers in accordance with the Constitution. Although the Constitution explicitly says that the president is the executive head of the state, real executive power is exercised by the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister. This is inferred from Article 74 of the Indian Constitution, providing for a "... council of ministers to aid and advise the President who shall, in exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice".
On September 11, 2008 the Government of India increased the salary of the President to Rs. 1.5 lakh (US$ 3,200).
Removal of the President (impeachment)
The President may be removed before the expiry of his/her term through impeachment. A President can only be removed for violation of the Constitution.
The process may start in either of the two houses of the Parliament. The house initiates the process by leveling the charges against the President. The charges are contained in a notice which has to be signed by at least one quarter of the total members of that house. The notice is sent up to the President and 14 days later, it is taken up for consideration.
A resolution to impeach the President has to be passed by a two-third majority of the total members of the originating house. It is then sent to the other house. The other house investigates the charges that have been made. During this process, the President has the right to defend himself/herself through an authorized counsel. If the second house also approves the charges made by two-third majority again, the President stands impeached and is deemed to have vacated his/her office from the date when such a resolution stands passed. Other than impeachment, no other penalty can be given to the President for the violation of the Constitution.
No President has faced impeachment proceedings. Hence, the above provisions have never been tested.
Succession
In the event of a vacancy created for the President's post due to death, resignation, removal, etc., Article 65 of the [Indian Constitution] says that the Vice President will have to discharge his duties. The Vice President reverts to his office when a new President is elected and enters upon his office. When the President is unable to act owing to his absence, illness or any other cause, the Vice President discharges the President's functions for a temporary period until the President resumes his duties.
When the Vice President acts as, or discharges the functions of the President, he has all the powers and immunities of the President and is entitled to the same emoluments as the President.
Parliament has by an enactment made provision for the discharge of the functions of the President when vacancies occur in the offices of the President and of the Vice President simultaneously, owing to removal, death, resignation of the incumbent or otherwise. In such an eventuality, the Chief Justice, or in his absence, the senior most Judge of the Supreme Court of India available discharges the functions of the President until a newly elected President enters upon his office or a newly elected Vice President begins to act as President under Article 65 of the Constitution, whichever is the earlier.
Presidents
This list is numbered based on Presidents elected after winning an Indian Presidential election. The terms of Varahagiri Venkata Giri, Muhammad Hidayatullah, and Basappa Danappa Jatti, who have functioned as acting presidents, are therefore not numbered. The President of India does not represent any political party, and the Political party column below indicates the party (if any) that the president was a member of before being elected. The colours used in the table indicate the following:
# Name Took office Left office Notes
1 Dr Rajendra Prasad
26 January 1950 13 May 1962 Prasad was the first President of independent India from Bihar. He was also an independence activist of the Indian Independence Movement. Prasad was the only president to serve for two terms in office.
2 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
13 May 1962 13 May 1967
3 Zakir Hussain
13 May 1967 3 May 1969 Hussain was vice chancellor of the Aligarh Muslim University and a recipient of Padma Vibhushan and Bharat Ratna. He died before his term of office was ended.
Varahagiri Venkata Giri *
3 May 1969 20 July 1969 Giri was appointed as acting president following the death of Hussain. He resigned in a few months to take part in the presidential elections.
Muhammad Hidayatullah *
20 July 1969 24 August 1969 Hidayatullah served as the Chief Justice of India, and was a recipient of the Order of the British Empire. He served as acting president until the election of Giri as the President of India.
4 Varahagiri Venkata Giri
24 August 1969 24 August 1974 Giri is the only person to have served as both an acting president and president of India. He was a recipient of the Bharat Ratna,
5 Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
24 August 1974 11 February 1977 Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed served as a Minister before being elected as president. He died in 1977 before his term of office ended, and was the second Indian president to have died during a term of office.
Basappa Danappa Jatti *
11 February 1977 25 July 1977 Jatti was the vice president of India during Ahmed's term of office, and was sworn in as acting president upon Ahmed's death. He earlier functioned as the Chief Minister for the State of Mysore.
6 Neelam Sanjiva Reddy
25 July 1977 25 July 1982
7 Giani Zail Singh
25 July 1982 25 July 1987 In March 1972, Singh assumed the position of chief Minister of Punjab, and in 1980, he became Union Home Minister.
8 Ramaswamy Venkataraman
25 July 1987 25 July 1992 In 1942, Venkataraman was jailed by the British for his involvement in the India's independence movement. After his release, he was elected to independent India’s Provisional Parliament as a member of the Congress Party in 1950 and eventually joined the central government, where he first served as Minister of Finance and Industry and later as Minister of Defence.
9 Shankar Dayal Sharma
25 July 1992 25 July 1997
10 Kocheril Raman Narayanan
25 July 1997 25 July 2002 Narayanan served as India's ambassador to Thailand, Turkey, China and United States of America.
11 A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
25 July 2002 25 July 2007 Kalam, was a scientist who played a leading role in the development of India's ballistic missile and nuclear weapons programs. Kalam also received the Bharat Ratna.
12 Pratibha Patil
25 July 2007 Incumbent
Patil is the first woman to become the President of India. She was also the first female Governor of Rajasthan.
Some imp. Facts:
His prior recommendation or permission is needed to introduce certain types of Bills in the Parliament. E.g., a Bill for the formation of new States or alteration of boundaries of a State, a Money Bill, etc.
When a Bill is sent to the President after it has been passed by the Parliament, he can:
1. Give his assent to the Bill, or
2. Withhold his assent to the Bill, or
3. Return the Bill (if it is not a Money Bill or a Constitutional Amendment Bill) for reconsideration of the Parliament, although only once.
Art. 74 (1)). The 44th amendment Act, 1978 gave the President a new power to return such an advice for reconsideration of the Council of Ministers.
President has the power to veto with respect to the Bills passed by the Parliament.
He enjoys three types of veto powers:
1. Absolute Veto: Withholding the assent to the Bill.
In the case of a Government Bill, a situation may however be imagined where, after the passage of a Bill and before it is assented to by the President, the ministry resigns and new council of ministers advices the President to use his veto power against the Bill.
2. suspensive Veto: It is exercised when instead of refusing his assent out rightly to a Bill, the President returns the Bill or part of it for the reconsideration and the Parliament makes it obligatory on him to give his assent to it.
In this case, the veto power is merely of suspensive nature.
3. Pocket Veto: Since the Constitution does not provide any time limit within which the President is to declare his assent or refusal, the President could exercise this veto by not taking any action for an indefinite time; but if the ministry has a strong backing in Parliament, it would not be possible for him to do so.
4. Qualified veto: a veto is qualified when it is overridden by special majority of the legislature.
Pocket Veto was used in 1986 by the then President Giani Zail Singh in the Postal Bill.
He can enact laws through ordinance when the Parliament is in recess (Article 123).
These ordinances must be passed by Parliament within 6 weeks of reassembly.
He lays the report of the Comptroller and Auditor General, UPSC, the Finance Commission, and others, before the Parliament.
President Executive Powers
He Appoints PM, ministers, Chief Justice & judges of Supreme Court & High Courts, chairman & members of UPSC, Comptroller and Auditor General, Attorney General, Chief Election Commissioner and other members of Election Commission, Governors, Members of Finance Commission, Ambassadors, etc.
He directly administers the Union Territories through the Lt. Governor, Commissioner or Administrator.
President Legislative Powers
Can summon & prorogue the sessions of the 2 houses & can dissolve Lok Sabha.
As per our Constitution the President is eligible for re-election any number of times. The office of the President may be terminated before the expiry of the five-year term by:
The President submits his resignation in writing addressed to the Vice-President
The President is removed from office by process of impeachment in the manner provided in Article 61
MISCELLANEOUS:
In the history of Presidential elections, V.V. Giri is the only person who won the election of the President as an independent candidate in 1969.
In July 1977, Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy was elected unopposed as no one else filed nomination for the post of the President.
He decides on the questions as to the qualifications of the MPs, in consultation with the Election
Commission.Dr. Rajendra Prasad held the post twice.
Dr. Rajendra Prasad won the election with maximum percentage of difference. votes: V.V. Giri with minimum difference.
Except Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Farooq Ali Ahamed, Sanjeeva Reddy, Jail Singh A.P.J. Abdul Kalam and Pratibha Patil all other Presidents also worked as Vice-President.
Dr.K.R.Narayanan was the only President from S.C.Category
Mohammed Syed Hitayadullah was the only Chief Justice who as acted as President and worked as Vice President.
Ordinance making power of president:
1. President of India has got ordinance making power u/a 123 of the constitution.
2. President can exercise this power when one or both the houses are not in session, otherwise this power is not available.
3. This power can only be exercised on the advice of council of ministers and covers all those provisions which are available with the legislature.
4. The ordinance must be laid before the house when it reassembles and shall automatically cease to have effect at the expiration of six weeks from the date of reassembly of the house.
5. Parliament can disapprove the ordinance earlier.
That is, all executive decisions of the Union are taken in the name of the President. These executive decisions, which are administrative in nature, are carried out by the different ministries and departments of the Government.
The President of India is the head of state and first citizen of India, as well as the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces. Despite Article 53 of the Constitution stating the President can exercise their powers directly, with few exceptions, all of the authority vested in the President is in practice exercised by the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister.
The President is elected by the elected members of the Parliament of India (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) as well as of the state legislatures (Vidhan Sabhas), and serves for a term of five years. Incumbents are permitted to stand for re-election. A formula is used to allocate votes so there is a balance between the population of each state and the number of votes assembly members from a state can cast, and to give an equal balance between State Assembly members and National Parliament members. If no candidate receives a majority of votes there is a system by which losing candidates are eliminated from the contest and votes for them transferred to other candidates, until one gains a majority. The Vice-President is elected by a direct vote of all members (elected and nominated) of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
The president of India resides in an estate in New Delhi known as the Rashtrapati Bhavan. The presidential retreat is The Retreat in Chharabra, Shimla and Rashtrapati Nilayam (President's Place) in Hyderabad.
The 12th President of India is Her Excellency Pratibha Devisingh Patil, the first woman to serve in the office, who was sworn in on 25 July 2007
India became formally independent from the United Kingdom on 15 August 1947 .
With the Constitution of India coming into effect on 26 January, 1950, under Article 52 , Part V, the office of the President of India was established, with Dr. Rajendra Prasad as its first occupant.
Powers and Duties
Legislative powers
The President summons both houses of the Parliament and prorogues them. He or she can even dissolve the Lok Sabha. These powers are formal, and by convention, the President uses these powers according to the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister.
They inaugurate the Parliament by addressing it after the general elections and also at the beginning of the first session each year. Their address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government.
A bill that the Parliament has passed can become a law only after the President gives his/her assent to it. The President can return a bill to the Parliament, if it is not a money bill, for reconsideration. However, if the Parliament sends it back to them for the second time, the President is obliged to assent to it.
When the Parliament is not in session and the government considers it necessary to have a law, then the President can promulgate ordinances. These ordinances are submitted to the Parliament at its next session. They remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the Parliament is convened unless approved by it earlier.
Article 52 Executive powers
The Constitution vests in the President of India all the executive powers of the Central Government. The President appoints the Prime Minister the person most likely to command the support of the majority in the Lok Sabha (usually the leader of the majority party or coalition). The President then appoints the other members of the Council of Ministers, distributing portfolios to them on the advice of the Prime Minister.
The Council of Ministers remains in power during the 'pleasure' of the President. In practice, however, the Council of Ministers must retain the support of the Lok Sabha. If a President were to dismiss the Council of Ministers on his or her own initiative, it might trigger a constitutional crisis. Thus, in practice, the Council of Ministers cannot be dismissed as long as it commands the support of a majority in the Lok Sabha.
The President is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. These include:
• Governors of States
• The Chief Justice, other judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts of India.
• The Attorney General
• The Comptroller and Auditor General
• The Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners
• The Chairman and other Members of the Union Public Service Commission
• Ambassadors and High Commissioners to other countries.
The President also receives the credentials of Ambassadors and High Commissioners from other countries.
The President is the de jure Commander in Chief of the Indian Armed Forces.
The President of India can grant a pardon to or reduce the sentence of a convicted person for one time, particularly in cases involving punishment of death.
The decisions involving pardoning and other rights by the president are independent of the opinion of the Prime Minister or the Lok Sabha majority. In most other cases, however, the President exercises his or her executive powers on the advice of the Prime Minister.
Financial powers
Money bills can be introduced in the Parliament only on the prior recommendation of the President. He/she also causes to be laid before the Parliament the annual financial statement which is the Union Budget. Further no demand for grant shall be made except on his recommendation. He/She can also make advances out of the Contingency Fund of India to meet any unforeseen expenditure. Moreover, he\she constitutes the Finance Commission every 5 years to recommend the distribution of taxes between the States and the Centre.
Judicial powers
The president appoints the Chief Justice of the Union Judiciary and other judges on the advice of the Chief Justice. In practice, these judges are actually selected by the Union cabinet. The President dismisses the judges if and only if the two Houses of the Parliament pass resolutions to that effect by two-thirds majority of the members present.
If they consider a question of law or a matter of public importance has arisen they can ask for the advisory opinion of the Supreme Court. He may or may not accept that opinion.
He/She has the right to grant pardon. He/She can suspend, remit or commute the death sentence of any person..
President Judicial Powers
The President's pardoning power comprises a group of analogous powers:
1. Pardon: It rescinds both the sentence and the conviction and completely absolves the offender from all punishments and disqualifications.
2. Reprieve: It means a stay of execution of sentence pending a proceeding for pardon or commutation.
3. Remission: The power of remission reduces the amount of sentence without changing its character. E.g., a sentence of imprisonment for one year may be remitted for six months.
4. Respite: The power to grant respite means awarding a lesser sentence instead of the prescribed penalty in view of some special facts. E.g., pregnancy of the woman offender.
5. Commutation: It merely substitutes one form of the punishment for another of a lighter character - death by transportation, transportation by rigorous imprisonment, rigorous imprisonment by simple imprisonment, and simple imprisonment by fine and so on.
He/She enjoys the judicial immunity:
• No criminal proceedings can be initiated against him/her during his term in office.
• He/She is not answerable for the exercise of his duties.
Diplomatic powers
All international treaties and agreements are negotiated and concluded on behalf of the President. However, in practice, such negotiations are usually carried out by the Prime Minister along with his Cabinet (especially the Foreign Minister). Also, such treaties are subject to the approval of the Parliament. The President represents India in international forums and affairs where such a function is chiefly ceremonial. The President may also send and receive diplomats like Ambassadors and High Commissioners.
Military powers
The President is the supreme commander of the defence forces of India, in this capacity the president can appoint Army, Navy & Air Chiefs. The President can declare war or conclude peace, subject to the approval of parliament only under the decision of the Council of Ministers
Emergency powers
The President can declare three types of emergencies: national, state and financial.
National emergency
National emergency is caused by war, external aggression or armed rebellion in the whole of India or a part of its territory. Such an emergency was declared in India in 1962 (Indo-China war), 1971 (Indo-Pakistan war), 1975 to 1977 (declared by Indira Gandhi on account of "internal disturbance").
Under Article 352 of the India Constitution the President can declare such an emergency only on the basis of a written request by the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. Such a proclamation must be approved by the Parliament within one month. Such an emergency can be imposed for six months. It can be extended by six months by repeated parliamentary approval, up to a maximum of 3 Years.
In such an emergency, Fundamental Rights of Indian citizens can be suspended. The six freedoms under Right to Freedom are automatically suspended. However, the Right to Life and Personal Liberty cannot be suspended.
The Parliament can make laws on the 66 subjects of the State List (which contains subjects on which the state governments can make laws). Also, all money bills are referred to the Parliament for its approval. The term of the Lok Sabha can be extended by a period of up to one year, but not so as to extend the term of Parliament beyond six months after the end of the declared emergency.
State emergency
State emergency, also known as President's rule, is declared due to breakdown of constitutional machinery in a state.
If the President is satisfied, on the basis of the report of the Governor of the concerned state or from other sources that the governance in a state cannot be carried out according to the provisions in the Constitution, he/she can declare a state of emergency in the state. Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within a period of six months.
Under Article 356 of the Indian Constitution, it can be imposed from six months to a maximum period of three years with repeated parliamentary approval every six months. If the emergency needs to be extended for more than three years, this can be achieved by a constitutional amendment, as has happened in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir.
During such an emergency, the President can take over the entire work of the executive, and the Governor administers the state in the name of the President. The Legislative Assembly can be dissolved or may remain in suspended animation. The Parliament makes laws on the 66 subjects of the state list (see National emergency for explanation). All money bills have to be referred to the Parliament for approval.
On 19 January 2009, President's rule was imposed on the Indian State of Jharkhand making it the latest state where this kind of emergency has been imposed.
A State Emergency can be imposed via the following:
1. By Article 356:-If that state failed to run constitutionally i.e. constitutional machinery has failed
2. By Article 365:-If that state is not working according to the given direction of the Union Government.
This type of emergency needs the approval of the parliament within 2 months. This type of emergency can last up to a maximum of 3 years via extensions after each 6 month period. However, after one year it can be extended only if
1. A state of National Emergency has been declared in the country or in the particular state.
2. The Election Commission finds it difficult to organize an election in that state.
Financial emergency
If the President is satisfied that there is an economic situation in which the financial stability or credit of India is threatened, he/she can proclaim financial emergency as per the Constitutional Article 360. Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within two months. It has never been declared. On a previous occasion, the financial stability or credit of India has indeed been threatened, but a financial emergency was avoided through the selling off of India's gold reserves.
A state of financial emergency remains in force indefinitely until revoked by the President.
In case of a financial emergency, the President can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts. All money bills are passed by the State legislatures are submitted to the President for his approval. They can direct the state to observe certain principles (economy measures) relating to financial matters.
Selection Process
Eligibility
Article 58 of the Constituion sets the principle qualifications one must meet to be eligible to the office of the President. A President must be :
• a citizen of India
• of 35 years of age or above
• qualified to become a member of the Lok Sabha
A person shall not be eligible for election as President if he holds any office of profit under the Government of India or the Government of any State or under any local or other authority subject to the control of any of the said Governments.
Certain office-holders, however, are permitted to stand as Presidential candidates. These are:
• The current Vice President.
• The Governor of any State.
• A Minister of the Union or of any State.
In the event that the Vice President, a State Governor or a Minister is elected President, they are considered to have vacated their previous office on the date they begin serving as President.
Conditions for Presidency
Certain conditions, as per Article 59 of the Constitution, debar any eligible citizen from contesting the presidential elections. The conditions are :
• The President shall not be a member of either House of Parliament or of a House of the Legislature of any State,and if a member of either House of Parliament or of a House of the Legislature of any State be elected President, he shall be deemed to have vacated his seat in that House on the date on which he enters upon his office as President.
• The President shall not hold any other office of profit.
• The President shall be entitled without payment of rent to the use of his official residences and shall be also entitled to such emoluments, allowances and privileges as may be determined by Parliament by law and until provision in that behalf is so made, such emoluments, allowances and privileges as are specified in the Second Schedule.
• The emoluments and allowances of the President shall not be diminished during his term of office.
Election of the President
Whenever the office becomes vacant, the new president is chosen by an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both houses of the Parliament and the elected members of the State Legislative Assemblies (Vidhan Sabha).
The election is held in accordance to the system of Proportional Representation by means of Single Transferable Vote method. The Voting takes place by secret ballot system. The manner of election of President is provided by Article 55.
The formula adopted to secure uniformity among the States is as follows:
Value of Vote of an MLA = State Population / (1000' Total no. of elected MLA's)
On the basis of the above formula, the value of the vote of an MLA from UP has the highest value and that from Sikkim the lowest.
The formula adopted to secure uniformity between all the States on one hand and the Parliament on the other is as follows:
Value of Vote of an MP = Total value of votes of MLA's of all States / Total no. of elected MP's (LS + RS)
The 1971 census is currently under consideration.
The election is held through the system of proportional representation by means of the single - transferable vote by secret ballot.
The candidate who gets 50% of votes is considered elected.
Constitutional role
Constitutional role of the Indian Constitution states "There shall be a President of India". Article 53(1) vests in the President the executive powers of the Union which are exercised either directly or through subordinate officers in accordance with the Constitution. Although the Constitution explicitly says that the president is the executive head of the state, real executive power is exercised by the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister. This is inferred from Article 74 of the Indian Constitution, providing for a "... council of ministers to aid and advise the President who shall, in exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice".
On September 11, 2008 the Government of India increased the salary of the President to Rs. 1.5 lakh (US$ 3,200).
Removal of the President (impeachment)
The President may be removed before the expiry of his/her term through impeachment. A President can only be removed for violation of the Constitution.
The process may start in either of the two houses of the Parliament. The house initiates the process by leveling the charges against the President. The charges are contained in a notice which has to be signed by at least one quarter of the total members of that house. The notice is sent up to the President and 14 days later, it is taken up for consideration.
A resolution to impeach the President has to be passed by a two-third majority of the total members of the originating house. It is then sent to the other house. The other house investigates the charges that have been made. During this process, the President has the right to defend himself/herself through an authorized counsel. If the second house also approves the charges made by two-third majority again, the President stands impeached and is deemed to have vacated his/her office from the date when such a resolution stands passed. Other than impeachment, no other penalty can be given to the President for the violation of the Constitution.
No President has faced impeachment proceedings. Hence, the above provisions have never been tested.
Succession
In the event of a vacancy created for the President's post due to death, resignation, removal, etc., Article 65 of the [Indian Constitution] says that the Vice President will have to discharge his duties. The Vice President reverts to his office when a new President is elected and enters upon his office. When the President is unable to act owing to his absence, illness or any other cause, the Vice President discharges the President's functions for a temporary period until the President resumes his duties.
When the Vice President acts as, or discharges the functions of the President, he has all the powers and immunities of the President and is entitled to the same emoluments as the President.
Parliament has by an enactment made provision for the discharge of the functions of the President when vacancies occur in the offices of the President and of the Vice President simultaneously, owing to removal, death, resignation of the incumbent or otherwise. In such an eventuality, the Chief Justice, or in his absence, the senior most Judge of the Supreme Court of India available discharges the functions of the President until a newly elected President enters upon his office or a newly elected Vice President begins to act as President under Article 65 of the Constitution, whichever is the earlier.
Presidents
This list is numbered based on Presidents elected after winning an Indian Presidential election. The terms of Varahagiri Venkata Giri, Muhammad Hidayatullah, and Basappa Danappa Jatti, who have functioned as acting presidents, are therefore not numbered. The President of India does not represent any political party, and the Political party column below indicates the party (if any) that the president was a member of before being elected. The colours used in the table indicate the following:
# Name Took office Left office Notes
1 Dr Rajendra Prasad
26 January 1950 13 May 1962 Prasad was the first President of independent India from Bihar. He was also an independence activist of the Indian Independence Movement. Prasad was the only president to serve for two terms in office.
2 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
13 May 1962 13 May 1967
3 Zakir Hussain
13 May 1967 3 May 1969 Hussain was vice chancellor of the Aligarh Muslim University and a recipient of Padma Vibhushan and Bharat Ratna. He died before his term of office was ended.
Varahagiri Venkata Giri *
3 May 1969 20 July 1969 Giri was appointed as acting president following the death of Hussain. He resigned in a few months to take part in the presidential elections.
Muhammad Hidayatullah *
20 July 1969 24 August 1969 Hidayatullah served as the Chief Justice of India, and was a recipient of the Order of the British Empire. He served as acting president until the election of Giri as the President of India.
4 Varahagiri Venkata Giri
24 August 1969 24 August 1974 Giri is the only person to have served as both an acting president and president of India. He was a recipient of the Bharat Ratna,
5 Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
24 August 1974 11 February 1977 Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed served as a Minister before being elected as president. He died in 1977 before his term of office ended, and was the second Indian president to have died during a term of office.
Basappa Danappa Jatti *
11 February 1977 25 July 1977 Jatti was the vice president of India during Ahmed's term of office, and was sworn in as acting president upon Ahmed's death. He earlier functioned as the Chief Minister for the State of Mysore.
6 Neelam Sanjiva Reddy
25 July 1977 25 July 1982
7 Giani Zail Singh
25 July 1982 25 July 1987 In March 1972, Singh assumed the position of chief Minister of Punjab, and in 1980, he became Union Home Minister.
8 Ramaswamy Venkataraman
25 July 1987 25 July 1992 In 1942, Venkataraman was jailed by the British for his involvement in the India's independence movement. After his release, he was elected to independent India’s Provisional Parliament as a member of the Congress Party in 1950 and eventually joined the central government, where he first served as Minister of Finance and Industry and later as Minister of Defence.
9 Shankar Dayal Sharma
25 July 1992 25 July 1997
10 Kocheril Raman Narayanan
25 July 1997 25 July 2002 Narayanan served as India's ambassador to Thailand, Turkey, China and United States of America.
11 A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
25 July 2002 25 July 2007 Kalam, was a scientist who played a leading role in the development of India's ballistic missile and nuclear weapons programs. Kalam also received the Bharat Ratna.
12 Pratibha Patil
25 July 2007 Incumbent
Patil is the first woman to become the President of India. She was also the first female Governor of Rajasthan.
Some imp. Facts:
His prior recommendation or permission is needed to introduce certain types of Bills in the Parliament. E.g., a Bill for the formation of new States or alteration of boundaries of a State, a Money Bill, etc.
When a Bill is sent to the President after it has been passed by the Parliament, he can:
1. Give his assent to the Bill, or
2. Withhold his assent to the Bill, or
3. Return the Bill (if it is not a Money Bill or a Constitutional Amendment Bill) for reconsideration of the Parliament, although only once.
Art. 74 (1)). The 44th amendment Act, 1978 gave the President a new power to return such an advice for reconsideration of the Council of Ministers.
President has the power to veto with respect to the Bills passed by the Parliament.
He enjoys three types of veto powers:
1. Absolute Veto: Withholding the assent to the Bill.
In the case of a Government Bill, a situation may however be imagined where, after the passage of a Bill and before it is assented to by the President, the ministry resigns and new council of ministers advices the President to use his veto power against the Bill.
2. suspensive Veto: It is exercised when instead of refusing his assent out rightly to a Bill, the President returns the Bill or part of it for the reconsideration and the Parliament makes it obligatory on him to give his assent to it.
In this case, the veto power is merely of suspensive nature.
3. Pocket Veto: Since the Constitution does not provide any time limit within which the President is to declare his assent or refusal, the President could exercise this veto by not taking any action for an indefinite time; but if the ministry has a strong backing in Parliament, it would not be possible for him to do so.
4. Qualified veto: a veto is qualified when it is overridden by special majority of the legislature.
Pocket Veto was used in 1986 by the then President Giani Zail Singh in the Postal Bill.
He can enact laws through ordinance when the Parliament is in recess (Article 123).
These ordinances must be passed by Parliament within 6 weeks of reassembly.
He lays the report of the Comptroller and Auditor General, UPSC, the Finance Commission, and others, before the Parliament.
President Executive Powers
He Appoints PM, ministers, Chief Justice & judges of Supreme Court & High Courts, chairman & members of UPSC, Comptroller and Auditor General, Attorney General, Chief Election Commissioner and other members of Election Commission, Governors, Members of Finance Commission, Ambassadors, etc.
He directly administers the Union Territories through the Lt. Governor, Commissioner or Administrator.
President Legislative Powers
Can summon & prorogue the sessions of the 2 houses & can dissolve Lok Sabha.
As per our Constitution the President is eligible for re-election any number of times. The office of the President may be terminated before the expiry of the five-year term by:
The President submits his resignation in writing addressed to the Vice-President
The President is removed from office by process of impeachment in the manner provided in Article 61
MISCELLANEOUS:
In the history of Presidential elections, V.V. Giri is the only person who won the election of the President as an independent candidate in 1969.
In July 1977, Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy was elected unopposed as no one else filed nomination for the post of the President.
He decides on the questions as to the qualifications of the MPs, in consultation with the Election
Commission.Dr. Rajendra Prasad held the post twice.
Dr. Rajendra Prasad won the election with maximum percentage of difference. votes: V.V. Giri with minimum difference.
Except Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Farooq Ali Ahamed, Sanjeeva Reddy, Jail Singh A.P.J. Abdul Kalam and Pratibha Patil all other Presidents also worked as Vice-President.
Dr.K.R.Narayanan was the only President from S.C.Category
Mohammed Syed Hitayadullah was the only Chief Justice who as acted as President and worked as Vice President.
Ordinance making power of president:
1. President of India has got ordinance making power u/a 123 of the constitution.
2. President can exercise this power when one or both the houses are not in session, otherwise this power is not available.
3. This power can only be exercised on the advice of council of ministers and covers all those provisions which are available with the legislature.
4. The ordinance must be laid before the house when it reassembles and shall automatically cease to have effect at the expiration of six weeks from the date of reassembly of the house.
5. Parliament can disapprove the ordinance earlier.
From the Death of Alexander to the Mahomedan Invasions(By Arun Joshi,Sri-krishna Institute,9888933043)
Indians Rise in Revolt
Immediately on the departure of Alexander from Indian soil, the Indians rose in revolt, and the Macedonian governor left by him in the country was slain, while his mixed force of Greeks and Indians were either put to the sword, or otherwise dispersed. The result of this proceeding was a massacre of the Indians by the new Macedonian contingent, King Porus. Due to the rebellion breaking out in Babylon, the Greek rulers eventually left Punjab and concluded a peace treaty by which Punjab was ceded to an Indian king, who in return, presented the Greeks with war elephants and chariots.
Rise of Indians
Invasion of Punjab by Various Foreigners In 206 B.C., the Punjab was invaded by Antiochus, grandson of Seleucus Nicator. At that time, Punjab was ruled by Asoka, a zealous Buddhist. Eventually, Antiochus concluded a treaty of peace with Asoka, and Greek influence was thus maintained in the Punjab. Eneradites, great king of Bactria, invaded the Punjab in the year 165 B.C., reducing the country as far as Patala, the modern Hyderabad, in Sindh. His successors, Manander and Appollodotus, ruled the Punjab from the year 126 B.C. to 110 B.C. About the year 110 B.C., the Scythic element was predominant in the Punjab. The You-ti emigrated in great hordes to Afghanistan and eventually into the Punjab. The Scythian kings were expelled by the great Indian sovereign, Vikramaditya, in 56 B.C., but on his death, the country was overrun by fresh hordes of Scythians, who ruled until the 5th century of the Christian era. In the beginning of fifth century A.D., the dynasty of Kadphises was subverted by the Ephthalites, who were subdued in 555 A.D. by the Turks. Portions of Punjab were also, from time to time, conquered by the kings of Kashmir.
Influence of Greeks
Greek Influence on Punjab In the Punjab, where the Greeks had settled in considerable numbers, their influence was great. The architecture of the country owed its first impulse to Grecian art, and the Buddhist monasteries abound with statues and figures chiseled after the fashion of the Greeks. These monuments of Buddho-Grecian art have been excavated from various parts of the Punjab border, and now form a beautiful collection in the Lahore museum.
Immediately on the departure of Alexander from Indian soil, the Indians rose in revolt, and the Macedonian governor left by him in the country was slain, while his mixed force of Greeks and Indians were either put to the sword, or otherwise dispersed. The result of this proceeding was a massacre of the Indians by the new Macedonian contingent, King Porus. Due to the rebellion breaking out in Babylon, the Greek rulers eventually left Punjab and concluded a peace treaty by which Punjab was ceded to an Indian king, who in return, presented the Greeks with war elephants and chariots.
Rise of Indians
Invasion of Punjab by Various Foreigners In 206 B.C., the Punjab was invaded by Antiochus, grandson of Seleucus Nicator. At that time, Punjab was ruled by Asoka, a zealous Buddhist. Eventually, Antiochus concluded a treaty of peace with Asoka, and Greek influence was thus maintained in the Punjab. Eneradites, great king of Bactria, invaded the Punjab in the year 165 B.C., reducing the country as far as Patala, the modern Hyderabad, in Sindh. His successors, Manander and Appollodotus, ruled the Punjab from the year 126 B.C. to 110 B.C. About the year 110 B.C., the Scythic element was predominant in the Punjab. The You-ti emigrated in great hordes to Afghanistan and eventually into the Punjab. The Scythian kings were expelled by the great Indian sovereign, Vikramaditya, in 56 B.C., but on his death, the country was overrun by fresh hordes of Scythians, who ruled until the 5th century of the Christian era. In the beginning of fifth century A.D., the dynasty of Kadphises was subverted by the Ephthalites, who were subdued in 555 A.D. by the Turks. Portions of Punjab were also, from time to time, conquered by the kings of Kashmir.
Influence of Greeks
Greek Influence on Punjab In the Punjab, where the Greeks had settled in considerable numbers, their influence was great. The architecture of the country owed its first impulse to Grecian art, and the Buddhist monasteries abound with statues and figures chiseled after the fashion of the Greeks. These monuments of Buddho-Grecian art have been excavated from various parts of the Punjab border, and now form a beautiful collection in the Lahore museum.
UPSC Aptitude Test Syllabus
Paper 1
Pattern:
Total Marks: 200
Duration : 2 Hours
Syllabus
• Current events of national and international importance
• History of India and Indian national movement
• Indian and World Geography- physical, social, economic geography of India and the world
• Indian Polity and governance – constitution, political system, panchayati raj, public policy, Rights issues, etc.
• Economic and social development – sustainable development, poverty, inclusion, demographics, social sector initiatives etc.
• General issues on environmental ecology, bio-diversity and climate change-that do not require subject specialization
• General science.
Paper 2
Pattern:
Total Marks: 200
Duration : 2 Hours
Syllabus
• Comprehension
• Interpersonal skills including communication skills
• Logical reasoning and analytical ability
• Decision making and problem solving
• General mental ability
• Basic numeracy (numbers and their relations, orders of magnitude etc. (Class X level), Data interpretation (charts, graphs, tables, data sufficiency etc. –Class X level)
• English language comprehension skills (Class X level)
Best of luck guys.Plan well and work hard.
Pattern:
Total Marks: 200
Duration : 2 Hours
Syllabus
• Current events of national and international importance
• History of India and Indian national movement
• Indian and World Geography- physical, social, economic geography of India and the world
• Indian Polity and governance – constitution, political system, panchayati raj, public policy, Rights issues, etc.
• Economic and social development – sustainable development, poverty, inclusion, demographics, social sector initiatives etc.
• General issues on environmental ecology, bio-diversity and climate change-that do not require subject specialization
• General science.
Paper 2
Pattern:
Total Marks: 200
Duration : 2 Hours
Syllabus
• Comprehension
• Interpersonal skills including communication skills
• Logical reasoning and analytical ability
• Decision making and problem solving
• General mental ability
• Basic numeracy (numbers and their relations, orders of magnitude etc. (Class X level), Data interpretation (charts, graphs, tables, data sufficiency etc. –Class X level)
• English language comprehension skills (Class X level)
Best of luck guys.Plan well and work hard.
Thursday, October 21, 2010
Invasion of Punjab by Alexander the Great(By Arun Joshi,Sri-Krishna Institute,9888933043)
Alexander the Great
Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon and Olympias, was born at Pella in 356 B.C. and received education from Aristotle, especially in the arts of government and war. On the assassination of his father, Alexander ascended the throne, in 336 B.C., at the age of 20. At the time, the small but powerful country of Greece was divided into several states which were constantly at war with each other.
Various Conquests
Soon after his accession to the throne, Alexander conquered Thrace and reduced Thebes. In his celebrated march across the Hellespont, he defeated an army of 110,000 Persians. He eventually turned his arms against Syria and Phoenicia, occupied the great city of Damascus, and conquered all the cities on the shore of the Mediterranean. He then marched to Jerusalem and received the submission of Palestine, and went northwards into Mesopotamia and Assyria. Wherever Alexander went, he subdued nations, built strong forts, and founded new cities.
Alexander the Great
Conquest of Punjab Having conquered Drangiana, Archosia, Gedrosia, and Seistan, in ten days, Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush and was thus fully informed of the magnificence of the country and its riches in gold, gems and pearls. However, Alexander had to encounter and reduce the tribes on the border of Punjab before entering the luxuriant plains. Having taken a north-easterly direction, he marched against the Aspii, mountaineers, who offered a vigorous resistance but were subdued. Alexander then marched through Ghazni, and shortly after, blockaded Magassa, and then marched to Ora and Bazira. Turning to the north-east, Alexander marched to Pucela, the capital of the district now known as Pakhli. He entered Western Punjab, where the ancient city of Nysa was situated. A coalition was formed against Alexander by the Cathians, the people of Multan, who were very skillful in war. Alexander invested heavy troops and eventually seventeen thousand Cathians feel in this battle, and the city of Sanghala was razed to the ground.
Legacy of Alexander
In the southern extremity of the Punjab, Alexander built a city which he named Alexandria. Alexander established a chain of forts along the whole line of the Indus, for commercial and political purposes, and he built various military posts. There was a coalition formed by the Brahmins to expel the foreign invaders, but Peithon, appointed by Alexander, crushed the insurgents, and a large number of priests and Brahmins were publicly crucified. Alexander left Punjab in 326 B.C., and took his army to Persia and Susa. He had conquered the whole of the then known world. In every part of the world he visited, he founded magnificent cities, constructed large fleets, and developed commercial places. He died in his palace in Babylon on June 13th, 323 B.C., in the 32nd year of his age. Within a few years of his death, his wives, his child, and his mother were all killed, and his vast empire divided among his generals, so that nothing remained of him but his name.
Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon and Olympias, was born at Pella in 356 B.C. and received education from Aristotle, especially in the arts of government and war. On the assassination of his father, Alexander ascended the throne, in 336 B.C., at the age of 20. At the time, the small but powerful country of Greece was divided into several states which were constantly at war with each other.
Various Conquests
Soon after his accession to the throne, Alexander conquered Thrace and reduced Thebes. In his celebrated march across the Hellespont, he defeated an army of 110,000 Persians. He eventually turned his arms against Syria and Phoenicia, occupied the great city of Damascus, and conquered all the cities on the shore of the Mediterranean. He then marched to Jerusalem and received the submission of Palestine, and went northwards into Mesopotamia and Assyria. Wherever Alexander went, he subdued nations, built strong forts, and founded new cities.
Alexander the Great
Conquest of Punjab Having conquered Drangiana, Archosia, Gedrosia, and Seistan, in ten days, Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush and was thus fully informed of the magnificence of the country and its riches in gold, gems and pearls. However, Alexander had to encounter and reduce the tribes on the border of Punjab before entering the luxuriant plains. Having taken a north-easterly direction, he marched against the Aspii, mountaineers, who offered a vigorous resistance but were subdued. Alexander then marched through Ghazni, and shortly after, blockaded Magassa, and then marched to Ora and Bazira. Turning to the north-east, Alexander marched to Pucela, the capital of the district now known as Pakhli. He entered Western Punjab, where the ancient city of Nysa was situated. A coalition was formed against Alexander by the Cathians, the people of Multan, who were very skillful in war. Alexander invested heavy troops and eventually seventeen thousand Cathians feel in this battle, and the city of Sanghala was razed to the ground.
Legacy of Alexander
In the southern extremity of the Punjab, Alexander built a city which he named Alexandria. Alexander established a chain of forts along the whole line of the Indus, for commercial and political purposes, and he built various military posts. There was a coalition formed by the Brahmins to expel the foreign invaders, but Peithon, appointed by Alexander, crushed the insurgents, and a large number of priests and Brahmins were publicly crucified. Alexander left Punjab in 326 B.C., and took his army to Persia and Susa. He had conquered the whole of the then known world. In every part of the world he visited, he founded magnificent cities, constructed large fleets, and developed commercial places. He died in his palace in Babylon on June 13th, 323 B.C., in the 32nd year of his age. Within a few years of his death, his wives, his child, and his mother were all killed, and his vast empire divided among his generals, so that nothing remained of him but his name.
Tuesday, October 19, 2010
Invasion of Punjab by Osiris, King of Egypt(By ArunJoshi,Sri-Krishna Institute,9888933043)
Invasion of Punjab by Osiris, King of Egypt
The ancient Hindus called Egypt Misrasthan, from its being inhabited by Misraim, the son of Ham. Egypt flourished at a period long before the Greeks emerged from barbarism, and Osiris, the king of Egypt, is praised not only as a great warrior, but as a zealous promoter of the arts. He conquered Ethiopia and Arabia, and eventually marched at the head of his forces in the direction of the Punjab. The people of the Punjab assembled in immense numbers to defend their country, but offered but a feeble resistance. The plains of the Punjab fell into the possession of the foreign conqueror, who pushed his conquests to the mouth of the Ganges. After a three year stay, the Egyptians returned to their native land, after erecting pillars and monuments, and founding cities in the name of Osiris.
Invasion of Punjab by Semiramis, Queen of Assyria
When the ancient empire of Babylonia was absorbed in that of Assyria, Ninus became the first king. On his death, about the ninth century B.C., Semiramis, his queen, succeeded to the vast monarchy. Impelled by the riches of India, she undertook her celebrated expedition to this country. Semiramis is believed to be the Sami Rama of the Hindu Puranas and is worshiped by the Hindus as a deity. It does not appear that the Assyrians penetrated far beyond the western frontier of the Punjab. The great obstacles were the presence of a wide stream on the north-west of Punjab, and the superiority of the Indians in possessing war elephants. The Assyrians won the first battle, but the inhabitants eventually routed the invaders, and eventually the Queen retreated to her native land, with a considerable loss to the remnants of her army.
Osiris, King of Egypt
Invasion of Punjab by Sesostris, King of Egypt Sesostris flourished on the throne of Eygpt in the eighteenth century before the Christian era. He was a powerful king both by land and sea, and having overrun the whole province of Asia, he penetrated the wild deserts of Scythia and Thrace, and then bent his attention towards the conquest of India. He led his army into Punjab, and extended his sway as far as the Ganges. He erected pillars descriptive of his conquest and glory, inscribed with various symbols.
Invasion of Punjab by the Scythians, or Tartars
The history of that nation begins with Oghaz, who made war on Persia, and carried his arms to Irak, Azarbajan, and Armenia. He then advanced to Kabul and Ghazni, and reduced Northern India, including Kashmir. Jagma, ruler of Kashmir, offered a stout resistance, but was eventually reduced. Jagma was massacred, and a considerable number of the Kashmir inhabitants were put to the sword. The Tartars invaded Punjab again in 650 B.C., and a considerable portion of the army of the Scythians settled in the Punjab. A race of them, called Nomardy, inhabited the country on the west bank of the Indus. They are described as a nomadic tribe, living in wooden homes. A portion of these settlers were called the Getes, from whom sprung the modern Jatts. The migration of vast hordes of Scythian plunderers and conquerors into the Punjab, and, indeed, the whole of India had its effect both dynastic and religious.
Persian Conquest of the Punjab
The first recorded invasion of India by the Persians was under Faridun, founder of Isthakar, or Persepolis, who flourished about 750 B.C.. No details are given as to how far the empire of Faridun extended in India, but it certainly included the Punjab. There was a great battle fought between the Persians and the Indians, in which the latter sustained a severe defeat. Darius I, who was elected king of Persia in 521 B.C., is mentioned as the next Persian sovereign who attempted the conquest of India.
The ancient Hindus called Egypt Misrasthan, from its being inhabited by Misraim, the son of Ham. Egypt flourished at a period long before the Greeks emerged from barbarism, and Osiris, the king of Egypt, is praised not only as a great warrior, but as a zealous promoter of the arts. He conquered Ethiopia and Arabia, and eventually marched at the head of his forces in the direction of the Punjab. The people of the Punjab assembled in immense numbers to defend their country, but offered but a feeble resistance. The plains of the Punjab fell into the possession of the foreign conqueror, who pushed his conquests to the mouth of the Ganges. After a three year stay, the Egyptians returned to their native land, after erecting pillars and monuments, and founding cities in the name of Osiris.
Invasion of Punjab by Semiramis, Queen of Assyria
When the ancient empire of Babylonia was absorbed in that of Assyria, Ninus became the first king. On his death, about the ninth century B.C., Semiramis, his queen, succeeded to the vast monarchy. Impelled by the riches of India, she undertook her celebrated expedition to this country. Semiramis is believed to be the Sami Rama of the Hindu Puranas and is worshiped by the Hindus as a deity. It does not appear that the Assyrians penetrated far beyond the western frontier of the Punjab. The great obstacles were the presence of a wide stream on the north-west of Punjab, and the superiority of the Indians in possessing war elephants. The Assyrians won the first battle, but the inhabitants eventually routed the invaders, and eventually the Queen retreated to her native land, with a considerable loss to the remnants of her army.
Osiris, King of Egypt
Invasion of Punjab by Sesostris, King of Egypt Sesostris flourished on the throne of Eygpt in the eighteenth century before the Christian era. He was a powerful king both by land and sea, and having overrun the whole province of Asia, he penetrated the wild deserts of Scythia and Thrace, and then bent his attention towards the conquest of India. He led his army into Punjab, and extended his sway as far as the Ganges. He erected pillars descriptive of his conquest and glory, inscribed with various symbols.
Invasion of Punjab by the Scythians, or Tartars
The history of that nation begins with Oghaz, who made war on Persia, and carried his arms to Irak, Azarbajan, and Armenia. He then advanced to Kabul and Ghazni, and reduced Northern India, including Kashmir. Jagma, ruler of Kashmir, offered a stout resistance, but was eventually reduced. Jagma was massacred, and a considerable number of the Kashmir inhabitants were put to the sword. The Tartars invaded Punjab again in 650 B.C., and a considerable portion of the army of the Scythians settled in the Punjab. A race of them, called Nomardy, inhabited the country on the west bank of the Indus. They are described as a nomadic tribe, living in wooden homes. A portion of these settlers were called the Getes, from whom sprung the modern Jatts. The migration of vast hordes of Scythian plunderers and conquerors into the Punjab, and, indeed, the whole of India had its effect both dynastic and religious.
Persian Conquest of the Punjab
The first recorded invasion of India by the Persians was under Faridun, founder of Isthakar, or Persepolis, who flourished about 750 B.C.. No details are given as to how far the empire of Faridun extended in India, but it certainly included the Punjab. There was a great battle fought between the Persians and the Indians, in which the latter sustained a severe defeat. Darius I, who was elected king of Persia in 521 B.C., is mentioned as the next Persian sovereign who attempted the conquest of India.
Monday, October 18, 2010
National - Major Issues 01 to 10 August 2010(By ArunJoshi,Sri-Krishna Institute,9888933043)
Reprocessing accord signed
India and the U.S. on signed the agreement on modalities for reprocessing spent nuclear fuel, under the civilian nuclear deal between the two countries.
The agreement on arrangements and procedures for reprocessing was signed at a State Department ceremony by Indian ambassador Meera Shankar and U.S. Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs William Burns.
Pursuant to Article 6(iii) of the bilateral ‘123 Agreement' on civilian nuclear cooperation, the agreement was hailed by the Indian embassy here as “a significant step which highlights the strong relationship and growing cooperation between India and the U.S.” Upon entry into force, it will enable reprocessing by India of United States-obligated nuclear material under International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards.
The State Department in a statement said that as per the agreement reprocessing would be undertaken at a new, safeguarded national facility to be established by India, and that it would be dedicated solely to this.
Government of India had an ambitious programme for development of civil nuclear energy to meet the country's growing energy needs, noting that the target was “to increase our installed capacity more than seven fold to 35,000 MWe by the year 2022, and to 60,000 MWe by 2032.”
In this context, the government had already designated two sites for nuclear power plants to be established in cooperation with the U.S. and the companies of the two countries were now engaged in discussions.
India is planning two nuclear reactor park sites for U.S. technology in the States of Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat.”
Jaipur's Jantar Mantar inscribed in the World Heritage List
The Jantar Mantar in Jaipur is now a World Heritage Monument. The 34th session of the World Heritage Committee,in Brasilia, has inscribed Jantar Mantar in the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization's World Heritage List. Thirty-three countries across the world had submitted 32 sites for consideration this year.
The Jantar Mantar in Jaipur was chosen since ‘it is the most significant and the best preserved of India's historic observatories.'
The UNESCO website observes that these structures ‘designed for the observation of astronomical positions with the naked eye, embody several architectural and instrumental innovations.'
Located outside the city palace, this large stone observatory with its many instruments was built by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II in the 18th century. It is one of the one of the four existing astronomical observatories in India. The others are located in Varanasi, Delhi and Ujjain. The fifth one built in Mathura is not extant. The Samrat Yantra in Jaipur is one of the largest sundials in the world, with its gnomon raising about 73 feet above its base.
India had also submitted the Matheran Light Railway line for consideration as an extension of the Mountain Railways of India, which includes the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, Nilgiri railway and Kalka-Shimla Railway that are already inscribed as heritage sites.
The other international sites added to the list this year include, 11 Australian convict sites, the palace ensemble at ad-Dir'iyah in Saudi Arabia, Tabriz historic bazaar complex in Iran and the natural site of the Central Highlands in Sri Lanka.
Every year the World Heritage committee reviews sites proposed by various countries and inscribes the selected new ones to the heritage list. It also reviews the state of conservation of the sites already inscribed. So far, about 890 properties are included in the list for their “outstanding universal value.” The committee also oversees the disbursement of about $4 million annually from the World Heritage Fund.
India and the U.S. on signed the agreement on modalities for reprocessing spent nuclear fuel, under the civilian nuclear deal between the two countries.
The agreement on arrangements and procedures for reprocessing was signed at a State Department ceremony by Indian ambassador Meera Shankar and U.S. Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs William Burns.
Pursuant to Article 6(iii) of the bilateral ‘123 Agreement' on civilian nuclear cooperation, the agreement was hailed by the Indian embassy here as “a significant step which highlights the strong relationship and growing cooperation between India and the U.S.” Upon entry into force, it will enable reprocessing by India of United States-obligated nuclear material under International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards.
The State Department in a statement said that as per the agreement reprocessing would be undertaken at a new, safeguarded national facility to be established by India, and that it would be dedicated solely to this.
Government of India had an ambitious programme for development of civil nuclear energy to meet the country's growing energy needs, noting that the target was “to increase our installed capacity more than seven fold to 35,000 MWe by the year 2022, and to 60,000 MWe by 2032.”
In this context, the government had already designated two sites for nuclear power plants to be established in cooperation with the U.S. and the companies of the two countries were now engaged in discussions.
India is planning two nuclear reactor park sites for U.S. technology in the States of Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat.”
Jaipur's Jantar Mantar inscribed in the World Heritage List
The Jantar Mantar in Jaipur is now a World Heritage Monument. The 34th session of the World Heritage Committee,in Brasilia, has inscribed Jantar Mantar in the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization's World Heritage List. Thirty-three countries across the world had submitted 32 sites for consideration this year.
The Jantar Mantar in Jaipur was chosen since ‘it is the most significant and the best preserved of India's historic observatories.'
The UNESCO website observes that these structures ‘designed for the observation of astronomical positions with the naked eye, embody several architectural and instrumental innovations.'
Located outside the city palace, this large stone observatory with its many instruments was built by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II in the 18th century. It is one of the one of the four existing astronomical observatories in India. The others are located in Varanasi, Delhi and Ujjain. The fifth one built in Mathura is not extant. The Samrat Yantra in Jaipur is one of the largest sundials in the world, with its gnomon raising about 73 feet above its base.
India had also submitted the Matheran Light Railway line for consideration as an extension of the Mountain Railways of India, which includes the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, Nilgiri railway and Kalka-Shimla Railway that are already inscribed as heritage sites.
The other international sites added to the list this year include, 11 Australian convict sites, the palace ensemble at ad-Dir'iyah in Saudi Arabia, Tabriz historic bazaar complex in Iran and the natural site of the Central Highlands in Sri Lanka.
Every year the World Heritage committee reviews sites proposed by various countries and inscribes the selected new ones to the heritage list. It also reviews the state of conservation of the sites already inscribed. So far, about 890 properties are included in the list for their “outstanding universal value.” The committee also oversees the disbursement of about $4 million annually from the World Heritage Fund.
Aryan Conquest of the Punjab(by Arun Joshi,Sri-Krishna Institute,9888933043)
The Aryans
The mountains in the north-west is the primitive home of the Aryans, who migrated into the Punjab. Bands of these immigrants penetrated into the Punjab through the Himalayan passes. Being fresh from a cold northern country, they were very fair in color and called themselves Arya, meaning honorable. They bore the closest relation to the inhabitants of Iran and had a very similar language. Their first conquisition was the Punjab, and the period of when they invaded is uncertain, but is generally accepted they came some 2500 years ago, about 1500 B.C.
The Four Vedas
During this time, the four Vedas, the oldest living scriptures in the world, composed around 1500-1700 BC, supplies evidence concerning the life of the Aryans who settled in the Punjab. The Rig Veda, meaning fount of knowledge, is regarded by Hindus as the highest, the most sacred scriptures. The Vedas are four in number, the Rig, the Sama, the Yajar and the Atharvan, and they are each a collection of hymns and prayers. The hymns belong to different ages, and, before the art of writing was introduced, were preserved by the saintly families to whom they are believed to have been revealed. In that shape, they were handed down for generations from father to son. Gradually, the hymns were written in Sanskrit during the later period of the Aryan existence.
Early Artwork
Features and Language The Aryans of the Punjab bear a close resemblance to their brothers of the West with their straight noses and finely-chiseled features. They once spoke Sanskrit in its rude form, and also speak in a language common to Greek, Germanic, and Celtic languages. Even today, if one looks at the various Indian languages, one will find words common to many of the Western languages.
Battles Between Aryans and Early Inhabitants
The Rig Veda provides evidence that the primitive Aryans were not allowed to settle in the Punjab unmolested as long and bloody struggles were maintained in the wild. The inhabitants dwelt in cities built of stone, and possessed horses, cattle and chariots. They fought desperately for hearth and home, and the Aryans lost many battles before being finally able to subdue the early inhabitants. The Aryans fought in chariots drawn by horses. They had swords, axes, bows, spears, trumpeters, and standard-bearers. Trumpets and drums were used to excite them to valorous deeds or to convey the orders of commanders. The drum is the most ancient instrument used by the Hindus and it roused the warlike spirit of the warriors.
Battles Between Aryans and Inhabitants
Veneration for the Cow The Aryans were a people given more to the keeping and breeding of cattle than to the work of the plough. They were pastoral people, of nomadic habits. They often prayed their gods to bestow upon them many cows abounding in milk. The deities were invoked to protect the cows from misfortune, to increase the herds and to make the pastures green. The cow was pronounced to be the animal favored of the Al-mighty, and since it was so useful to man, its preservation became a religious obligation. The Aryans also kept humped oxen and camels.
Early Inhabitants of the Punjab
Their Organization and Civilization In their earlier colonies each father was the priest of his own family circle, and the vedic communities were organized into kingdoms. Those that were successful in war were often rewarded with slave women, dresses, cows, gold and chariots. The life of the Aryans of the Punjab was martial and manly. Their warlike character developed, and they adapted themselves to the conditions of tropical climate, very different than their cold, northern home. They dug channels for the purpose of irrigating their fields, and sowed beans, barley and sesame. They were acquainted with the arts of spinning and weaving and working of leather. They had among them carpenters, carriage makers, ship builders, goldsmiths, and other artisans. The possessed some knowledge of navigation; they had physicians who understood the healing properties of herbs. Also, monogamy seems to have been the rule, and a prince had to content himself with one wife.
Social Customs and Status of Woman
Women enjoyed a higher social status in Vedic times than that now accorded to her. She was termed the light of the dwelling. She had the privileges of acquiring knowledge, and some of the most eloquent hymns in the Vedas are attributed to female authors, ladies and queens. Child-marriage, although not absolutely prohibited, was not encouraged. Distinctions of caste were unknown, and Brahmanism represented a profession, not a distinct caste. The practice of sati, or the burning of a widow, was not sanctioned by the Vedas. In addition, unlike modern Hindus, the ancient Aryans held beef in esteem as an article of food. There were at one time beef-eating gods and beef-eating worshipers. The Aryans settlers of the Punjab were a spirit-drinking race and indulged freely in beer, wine, and spirit. Sages and saints drank and offered the fermented juice to the gods. The Aryans buried their dead, often in mountains, where they would become prey to the birds.
The mountains in the north-west is the primitive home of the Aryans, who migrated into the Punjab. Bands of these immigrants penetrated into the Punjab through the Himalayan passes. Being fresh from a cold northern country, they were very fair in color and called themselves Arya, meaning honorable. They bore the closest relation to the inhabitants of Iran and had a very similar language. Their first conquisition was the Punjab, and the period of when they invaded is uncertain, but is generally accepted they came some 2500 years ago, about 1500 B.C.
The Four Vedas
During this time, the four Vedas, the oldest living scriptures in the world, composed around 1500-1700 BC, supplies evidence concerning the life of the Aryans who settled in the Punjab. The Rig Veda, meaning fount of knowledge, is regarded by Hindus as the highest, the most sacred scriptures. The Vedas are four in number, the Rig, the Sama, the Yajar and the Atharvan, and they are each a collection of hymns and prayers. The hymns belong to different ages, and, before the art of writing was introduced, were preserved by the saintly families to whom they are believed to have been revealed. In that shape, they were handed down for generations from father to son. Gradually, the hymns were written in Sanskrit during the later period of the Aryan existence.
Early Artwork
Features and Language The Aryans of the Punjab bear a close resemblance to their brothers of the West with their straight noses and finely-chiseled features. They once spoke Sanskrit in its rude form, and also speak in a language common to Greek, Germanic, and Celtic languages. Even today, if one looks at the various Indian languages, one will find words common to many of the Western languages.
Battles Between Aryans and Early Inhabitants
The Rig Veda provides evidence that the primitive Aryans were not allowed to settle in the Punjab unmolested as long and bloody struggles were maintained in the wild. The inhabitants dwelt in cities built of stone, and possessed horses, cattle and chariots. They fought desperately for hearth and home, and the Aryans lost many battles before being finally able to subdue the early inhabitants. The Aryans fought in chariots drawn by horses. They had swords, axes, bows, spears, trumpeters, and standard-bearers. Trumpets and drums were used to excite them to valorous deeds or to convey the orders of commanders. The drum is the most ancient instrument used by the Hindus and it roused the warlike spirit of the warriors.
Battles Between Aryans and Inhabitants
Veneration for the Cow The Aryans were a people given more to the keeping and breeding of cattle than to the work of the plough. They were pastoral people, of nomadic habits. They often prayed their gods to bestow upon them many cows abounding in milk. The deities were invoked to protect the cows from misfortune, to increase the herds and to make the pastures green. The cow was pronounced to be the animal favored of the Al-mighty, and since it was so useful to man, its preservation became a religious obligation. The Aryans also kept humped oxen and camels.
Early Inhabitants of the Punjab
Their Organization and Civilization In their earlier colonies each father was the priest of his own family circle, and the vedic communities were organized into kingdoms. Those that were successful in war were often rewarded with slave women, dresses, cows, gold and chariots. The life of the Aryans of the Punjab was martial and manly. Their warlike character developed, and they adapted themselves to the conditions of tropical climate, very different than their cold, northern home. They dug channels for the purpose of irrigating their fields, and sowed beans, barley and sesame. They were acquainted with the arts of spinning and weaving and working of leather. They had among them carpenters, carriage makers, ship builders, goldsmiths, and other artisans. The possessed some knowledge of navigation; they had physicians who understood the healing properties of herbs. Also, monogamy seems to have been the rule, and a prince had to content himself with one wife.
Social Customs and Status of Woman
Women enjoyed a higher social status in Vedic times than that now accorded to her. She was termed the light of the dwelling. She had the privileges of acquiring knowledge, and some of the most eloquent hymns in the Vedas are attributed to female authors, ladies and queens. Child-marriage, although not absolutely prohibited, was not encouraged. Distinctions of caste were unknown, and Brahmanism represented a profession, not a distinct caste. The practice of sati, or the burning of a widow, was not sanctioned by the Vedas. In addition, unlike modern Hindus, the ancient Aryans held beef in esteem as an article of food. There were at one time beef-eating gods and beef-eating worshipers. The Aryans settlers of the Punjab were a spirit-drinking race and indulged freely in beer, wine, and spirit. Sages and saints drank and offered the fermented juice to the gods. The Aryans buried their dead, often in mountains, where they would become prey to the birds.
Saturday, October 16, 2010
Notes of Punjab history for PCS examination set -1(By Arun Joshi,Sri Krishna Institute,9888933043)
First Settlers of Punjab
Very little is known of the aboriginals of Punjab, who settled in the region thousands of years ago. It is generally accepted that the aborigines lived in caves and on the marshes of river banks. Their language was simple, they lived in small numbers and in isolated communities, and they generally wore animal skin to cover their bodies. Larger groups formed small tribes and became owners of flocks. The aborigines had little knowledge of the properties of metals, and used stones, clubs, and spears as hunting weapons.
Their Food
The abundance of fruit, herbs and roots, and of beasts of prey, and feathered game, afforded the aborigines an easy means of subsistence. Hunting seems to have been the earliest occupation of these people. Those that lived on the rivers feasted on raw fish and flesh. Many of the aborigines were cannibals, as those who lived to old age were slaugtered and feasted on by the young.
Their Race and Population
The aborigines were a dark race and are expressly mentioned as such in the Rig Veda, the oldest living scripture in the world. According to the 1881 census, about 959,720 aborigines live in the Punjab. Majority of today's aborigines, who number about 20 million, who were driven out of Punjab by various invaders, generally live in the south-east of India or in the Himalyas mountains. These aborigines tend to live in the jungles, dense forests, and remote areas, and often practice magic and sorcery.
Belief System
Unlike the Hindus, the aborigines observed no distinctions of caste. In addition, they buried their dead in the ground, beneath circular stones, mounds and perpendicular slabs, like the early inhabitants of Europe. The widows of the aborigines not only re-marry, but, usually marry the younger brothers of their deceased husbands. The modern Hindus generally abstain from eating beef; the aborigines feed alike on all flesh. In addition, among the aborigines, all ceremonies, civil or religous, is complete without drinking and dancing.
Very little is known of the aboriginals of Punjab, who settled in the region thousands of years ago. It is generally accepted that the aborigines lived in caves and on the marshes of river banks. Their language was simple, they lived in small numbers and in isolated communities, and they generally wore animal skin to cover their bodies. Larger groups formed small tribes and became owners of flocks. The aborigines had little knowledge of the properties of metals, and used stones, clubs, and spears as hunting weapons.
Their Food
The abundance of fruit, herbs and roots, and of beasts of prey, and feathered game, afforded the aborigines an easy means of subsistence. Hunting seems to have been the earliest occupation of these people. Those that lived on the rivers feasted on raw fish and flesh. Many of the aborigines were cannibals, as those who lived to old age were slaugtered and feasted on by the young.
Their Race and Population
The aborigines were a dark race and are expressly mentioned as such in the Rig Veda, the oldest living scripture in the world. According to the 1881 census, about 959,720 aborigines live in the Punjab. Majority of today's aborigines, who number about 20 million, who were driven out of Punjab by various invaders, generally live in the south-east of India or in the Himalyas mountains. These aborigines tend to live in the jungles, dense forests, and remote areas, and often practice magic and sorcery.
Belief System
Unlike the Hindus, the aborigines observed no distinctions of caste. In addition, they buried their dead in the ground, beneath circular stones, mounds and perpendicular slabs, like the early inhabitants of Europe. The widows of the aborigines not only re-marry, but, usually marry the younger brothers of their deceased husbands. The modern Hindus generally abstain from eating beef; the aborigines feed alike on all flesh. In addition, among the aborigines, all ceremonies, civil or religous, is complete without drinking and dancing.
Causes of Indian Nationalist Movement(By Arun Joshi,Sri-Krishna Institute,9888933043)
The Nationalist Movement in India was the outcome of a large number of factors and the most important among them was British Imperialism. It was during the British rule that the whole of India was conquered and brought under one sovereign authority. The domination by any country over the whole of India enabled the people of India to think and act as one nation. Before the coming of the British in India, the people of the South were usually separated from the rest of India except for short intervals. British Imperialism helped the unification of the country.
British rule brought the entire geographical area of the country under a single administration. It unified the country by introducing a uniform system of law and government. The introduction of the modern methods of transport and communication also produced the same unifying effect.
The improvements in the means of transport and communication also quickened the pace of the nationalist movement in the country. It is said that but for railways, motor buses and other modern means of communication, political and cultural life on a national scale would not have been possible. It can be said that if these became the means of consolidating and preserving British rule in India, they also played their part in organising the political movement of the Indian people on a national scale against their rule.
The English language played an important part in the growth of nationalism in the country. It acted as the lingua franca of the intelligentsia of India. Without the common medium of the English language it would have been impossible for the Bengalees, Madrasis and the Punjabis to sit at one table and discuss the common problems facing the country. The English language also made the Indians inheritors of a great literature which was full of great ideas and ideals.
The Indian press, both English and vernacular also aroused national consciousness. Great was the influence of the news papers like the Amrit Bazar Patrika, the Hindu, the Kesari, the Bengalee, the Hurkura and a lot more. The growth of Indian Press was phenomenal and by 1875, there were no less than 478 newspapers in the country. The Indian press helped in mobilizing the public opinion, convening national and provincial conferences, organising political movements, building up public institutions and fighting out public controversies. There was no issue of foreign policy or internal administration which escaped the notice of the news papers.
The writings of Dinabandhu Mitra, Hem Chandra Banerjee, Nabin Chandra Sen, Romesh Chunder Dutt, Rabindranath Tagore, Dwijendralal Roy, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee had also affected the minds of the people of India. All these writings affected the higher sentiments of the people. Rather it can be said that the writings of these writers helped the people of India to realise the national fervour and as a result they got united and tried to oust the British people from India.
There were many British officials and writers who put forward the thesis that the Indians had always been backward and they did not know the art of governing themselves. They also maintained that the Indians were destined to be ruled by others and there was no future hope of a free India.
The religious and social reformers like Ram Mohan Roy, Keshab Chandra Sen, Debendranath Tagore, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Ramkrishna Paramhansa, Swami Vivekananda and others inculcated a spirit of confidence, courage, self-respect and pride in the ancient heritage of India. It is contended that political awakening in India began with Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
The intelligentsia played a creative role in the rise of nationalism in the country. It is they who recognised the fact that the establishment of the British power in India marked a break with the past and the beginning of a new historical era. Their initial response to the British rule was positive but with passing time they got disillusioned.
History says that there was lot of discontentment in the country on account of many reasons. There was the economic exploitation of the people. The revenue charged by the government was more than what the people could afford to pay. The demands of the government continued to increase unmindful of the condition of the people and their capacity to pay.
The nationalist movement which rose in the minds of the people made them realise that they had no hope any fair play on the part of the Englishmen because a lot of self interests of the English people were involved in it.
Rise of Extremism in India
The workings of the Congress led to a discontentment in the minds of people. The feeling gets blazed out with the comments of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, as he described the Congressman "place-hunting politicians". From the writings of prolific persona like Aurobindo Ghosh the clear picture of such scenario comes out. To him the Congress was `dying of consumption`. Some causes have been pointed out that are thought to be resulted into the rise of Extremism.
1. True nature of the British Raj ---- The extensive and rigorous studies of the Nationalist leaders like, Ananda Charlu, R.N. Mudholkar, D.E. Wacha, G.K. Gokhle, Madan Mohan Malaviya debunked the true nature of British rule in India in terms of economy, politics, various policies etc. Their studies exposed the exploitative nature of British Raj. R.C Dutta and G.V. Joshi had also attempted to show the exploitative nature of British Land Revenue policy. The conspicuous disparity between the avowed aims and practiced policy in cases of recruitment to public service has been exposed with the studies of S.N. Banerjee. Even at the second session of the Congress held in Calcutta in the year 1886, a resolution was taken to control all the disparity. But the resolution was affirmed year after year without proper application. All this resulted naturally into Extremist ideology.
2. Increasing Westernization ---- Westernization started influencing Indian life, thought as well as politics. Indian religion, thought, culture and civilization started facing real challenge from Christianity, utilitarianism and Western civilization. Another attempt was also taken to coalesce Indian national identity into the British Empire. But though their writings Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Vivekananda and Swami Dayananda attempted to appeal to the people of India. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee through his works in Bengali tried to incorporate the mantra `Service to the Motherland` into the minds of people. A feeling of self-confidence has been injected to the youth by a great Vedantist Vivekananda. Swami Dayananda blows up a new mission to conquer the West with the Indian Spirituality. Dayananda played an important role in building a new confidence within Hindus with his notions and political message `India for the Indians`.
3. Dissatisfaction rose with the achievement of the Congress ---- The younger members of the Congress were discontented with the cold and reactional attitude of the government. The younger generations of Congressman also known as Nationalist or Extremists were disgusted for the old one. The methods of peaceful and constitutional agitation known as 3 Ps - petition, prayer and protest faced savior criticism from the young members. These three methods were described as `political mendicancy` by them. Instead of these slow, negligible achievements they were in favor of adopting the rapid European revolutionary methods to contest the European imperialism. The visit of Lala Lajpat Rai to England also gave light on the real picture of British democracy. His message to the countrymen was, `they would have to strike a blow for freedom themselves, and they should be prepared to give unmistakable proof of their earnestness`.
4. The economic Scenario of India ---- During the British Raj, the economic condition of India was miserably deteriorating, which ultimately resulted into the growth of extremism. Additionally famines of 1896-97 and 1899-1900, bubonic plague in Maharashtra took a grievous toll of life. Government however failed to control the situations. In the Deccan, riots broke out. All these events led to the utter helplessness of the Indians.
5. International influence ---- Nationalist movements in Egypt, Persia, Turkey, Russia; humiliating treatment to the Indians in British Colonies in South Africa influenced the younger Indian generation. Abyssinia`s repulsion of the Italian Army and Japan`s thumping victory over Russia gained Indian nationalists more confidence to revolt against the British Empire.
6. Reactionary Policies of Lord Curzon`s ---- Lord Curzon during his seven years rule in India however managed to create a strong reaction in the minds of Indian people. The Calcutta Corporation Act, the official Secrets Act and the Indian Universities Act were the acts constituted by Curzon, which resulted into great bitterness in India.
7. The Partition of Bengal ---- The partition of Bengal has been considered as one of the most hated aspect of Curzon`s administration.
British rule brought the entire geographical area of the country under a single administration. It unified the country by introducing a uniform system of law and government. The introduction of the modern methods of transport and communication also produced the same unifying effect.
The improvements in the means of transport and communication also quickened the pace of the nationalist movement in the country. It is said that but for railways, motor buses and other modern means of communication, political and cultural life on a national scale would not have been possible. It can be said that if these became the means of consolidating and preserving British rule in India, they also played their part in organising the political movement of the Indian people on a national scale against their rule.
The English language played an important part in the growth of nationalism in the country. It acted as the lingua franca of the intelligentsia of India. Without the common medium of the English language it would have been impossible for the Bengalees, Madrasis and the Punjabis to sit at one table and discuss the common problems facing the country. The English language also made the Indians inheritors of a great literature which was full of great ideas and ideals.
The Indian press, both English and vernacular also aroused national consciousness. Great was the influence of the news papers like the Amrit Bazar Patrika, the Hindu, the Kesari, the Bengalee, the Hurkura and a lot more. The growth of Indian Press was phenomenal and by 1875, there were no less than 478 newspapers in the country. The Indian press helped in mobilizing the public opinion, convening national and provincial conferences, organising political movements, building up public institutions and fighting out public controversies. There was no issue of foreign policy or internal administration which escaped the notice of the news papers.
The writings of Dinabandhu Mitra, Hem Chandra Banerjee, Nabin Chandra Sen, Romesh Chunder Dutt, Rabindranath Tagore, Dwijendralal Roy, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee had also affected the minds of the people of India. All these writings affected the higher sentiments of the people. Rather it can be said that the writings of these writers helped the people of India to realise the national fervour and as a result they got united and tried to oust the British people from India.
There were many British officials and writers who put forward the thesis that the Indians had always been backward and they did not know the art of governing themselves. They also maintained that the Indians were destined to be ruled by others and there was no future hope of a free India.
The religious and social reformers like Ram Mohan Roy, Keshab Chandra Sen, Debendranath Tagore, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Ramkrishna Paramhansa, Swami Vivekananda and others inculcated a spirit of confidence, courage, self-respect and pride in the ancient heritage of India. It is contended that political awakening in India began with Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
The intelligentsia played a creative role in the rise of nationalism in the country. It is they who recognised the fact that the establishment of the British power in India marked a break with the past and the beginning of a new historical era. Their initial response to the British rule was positive but with passing time they got disillusioned.
History says that there was lot of discontentment in the country on account of many reasons. There was the economic exploitation of the people. The revenue charged by the government was more than what the people could afford to pay. The demands of the government continued to increase unmindful of the condition of the people and their capacity to pay.
The nationalist movement which rose in the minds of the people made them realise that they had no hope any fair play on the part of the Englishmen because a lot of self interests of the English people were involved in it.
Rise of Extremism in India
The workings of the Congress led to a discontentment in the minds of people. The feeling gets blazed out with the comments of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, as he described the Congressman "place-hunting politicians". From the writings of prolific persona like Aurobindo Ghosh the clear picture of such scenario comes out. To him the Congress was `dying of consumption`. Some causes have been pointed out that are thought to be resulted into the rise of Extremism.
1. True nature of the British Raj ---- The extensive and rigorous studies of the Nationalist leaders like, Ananda Charlu, R.N. Mudholkar, D.E. Wacha, G.K. Gokhle, Madan Mohan Malaviya debunked the true nature of British rule in India in terms of economy, politics, various policies etc. Their studies exposed the exploitative nature of British Raj. R.C Dutta and G.V. Joshi had also attempted to show the exploitative nature of British Land Revenue policy. The conspicuous disparity between the avowed aims and practiced policy in cases of recruitment to public service has been exposed with the studies of S.N. Banerjee. Even at the second session of the Congress held in Calcutta in the year 1886, a resolution was taken to control all the disparity. But the resolution was affirmed year after year without proper application. All this resulted naturally into Extremist ideology.
2. Increasing Westernization ---- Westernization started influencing Indian life, thought as well as politics. Indian religion, thought, culture and civilization started facing real challenge from Christianity, utilitarianism and Western civilization. Another attempt was also taken to coalesce Indian national identity into the British Empire. But though their writings Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Vivekananda and Swami Dayananda attempted to appeal to the people of India. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee through his works in Bengali tried to incorporate the mantra `Service to the Motherland` into the minds of people. A feeling of self-confidence has been injected to the youth by a great Vedantist Vivekananda. Swami Dayananda blows up a new mission to conquer the West with the Indian Spirituality. Dayananda played an important role in building a new confidence within Hindus with his notions and political message `India for the Indians`.
3. Dissatisfaction rose with the achievement of the Congress ---- The younger members of the Congress were discontented with the cold and reactional attitude of the government. The younger generations of Congressman also known as Nationalist or Extremists were disgusted for the old one. The methods of peaceful and constitutional agitation known as 3 Ps - petition, prayer and protest faced savior criticism from the young members. These three methods were described as `political mendicancy` by them. Instead of these slow, negligible achievements they were in favor of adopting the rapid European revolutionary methods to contest the European imperialism. The visit of Lala Lajpat Rai to England also gave light on the real picture of British democracy. His message to the countrymen was, `they would have to strike a blow for freedom themselves, and they should be prepared to give unmistakable proof of their earnestness`.
4. The economic Scenario of India ---- During the British Raj, the economic condition of India was miserably deteriorating, which ultimately resulted into the growth of extremism. Additionally famines of 1896-97 and 1899-1900, bubonic plague in Maharashtra took a grievous toll of life. Government however failed to control the situations. In the Deccan, riots broke out. All these events led to the utter helplessness of the Indians.
5. International influence ---- Nationalist movements in Egypt, Persia, Turkey, Russia; humiliating treatment to the Indians in British Colonies in South Africa influenced the younger Indian generation. Abyssinia`s repulsion of the Italian Army and Japan`s thumping victory over Russia gained Indian nationalists more confidence to revolt against the British Empire.
6. Reactionary Policies of Lord Curzon`s ---- Lord Curzon during his seven years rule in India however managed to create a strong reaction in the minds of Indian people. The Calcutta Corporation Act, the official Secrets Act and the Indian Universities Act were the acts constituted by Curzon, which resulted into great bitterness in India.
7. The Partition of Bengal ---- The partition of Bengal has been considered as one of the most hated aspect of Curzon`s administration.
Thursday, October 14, 2010
Howard Jacobson wins the Man Booker Prize for Fiction 2010
Howard Jacobson on Tuesday 12 Octoberhas been named the winner of the £50,000 Man Booker Prize for Fiction for The Finkler Question, published by Bloomsbury.
London author and columnist Howard Jacobson has been long listed twice for the prize, in 2006 for Kalooki Nights and in 2002 for Who's Sorry Now, but has never before been shortlisted.
The Finkler Question is a novel about love, loss and male friendship, and explores what it means to be Jewish today.
London author and columnist Howard Jacobson has been long listed twice for the prize, in 2006 for Kalooki Nights and in 2002 for Who's Sorry Now, but has never before been shortlisted.
The Finkler Question is a novel about love, loss and male friendship, and explores what it means to be Jewish today.
New book released on Mahatma at UN on Non-violence Day
MKG (Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi)- Imaging Peace, Truth and Ahimsa,' written by Birad Rajaram Yajnik was unveiled at a function .
October 1 is celebrated as International Day on Non-violence by the UN .
The Permanent Mission of India to the UN in New York commemorated the day with a function. The President of the General Assembly Joseph Deiss was the chief guest, while Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon was represented by his Chef de Cabinet Vijay Nambiar.
Indian envoy H S Puri welcomed the guests and exhorted the universal relevance of non-violence and the desire for a culture of peace, tolerance and understanding.
His emphasis on human rights and people centric development was echoed in the UN charter and resonated in the Millennium Development Goals, he added.
October 1 is celebrated as International Day on Non-violence by the UN .
The Permanent Mission of India to the UN in New York commemorated the day with a function. The President of the General Assembly Joseph Deiss was the chief guest, while Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon was represented by his Chef de Cabinet Vijay Nambiar.
Indian envoy H S Puri welcomed the guests and exhorted the universal relevance of non-violence and the desire for a culture of peace, tolerance and understanding.
His emphasis on human rights and people centric development was echoed in the UN charter and resonated in the Millennium Development Goals, he added.
Govt finalises 3 interlocutors-Kashmir peace
As part of the eight-point peace package for Kashmir, the Centre has finalised a three-member team of interlocutors to be appointed for a renewed dialogue with separatist leaders in the trouble-torn Valley, on the boil for the past few months, and asked people of Kashmir to engage with them.
Famous journalist Dileep Padgaonkar will be the chief interlocutor whereas Information Commissioner M M Ansari and academic Prof Radha Kumar will be other two members of the team.
Mr Padgaonkar was member of the Kashmir Committee headed by eminent lawyer Ram Jethmalani.
Radha Kumar, who heads the Nelson Mandela Institute of Peace in Jamia Millia Islamia, was engaged in discussions with 'moderate' Hurriyat chief Mirwaiz Umar Farooq and hardliner Syed Ali Shah Geelani.
Noted educationist and economist Ansari was a professor and director at the Hamdard University before becoming the Information Commissioner.
Famous journalist Dileep Padgaonkar will be the chief interlocutor whereas Information Commissioner M M Ansari and academic Prof Radha Kumar will be other two members of the team.
Mr Padgaonkar was member of the Kashmir Committee headed by eminent lawyer Ram Jethmalani.
Radha Kumar, who heads the Nelson Mandela Institute of Peace in Jamia Millia Islamia, was engaged in discussions with 'moderate' Hurriyat chief Mirwaiz Umar Farooq and hardliner Syed Ali Shah Geelani.
Noted educationist and economist Ansari was a professor and director at the Hamdard University before becoming the Information Commissioner.
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