.GIF)
ARUN JOSHI
WTO
Formation January 1, 1995
Headquarters Geneva, Switzerland
Membership 153 member states
Director-General
Pascal Lamy
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on January 1, 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948. The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries; it provides a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements which are signed by representatives of member governments and ratified by their parliaments.
Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round (1986-1994).
The Uruguay Round was the 8th round of multilateral trade negotiations (MTN) conducted within the framework of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), spanning from 1986-1994 and embracing 110 countries as “contracting parties”. The Round transformed the GATT into the World Trade Organization.
What is Doha Development Agenda?
WTO is currently endeavoring to persist with a trade negotiation called the Doha Development Agenda (or Doha Round), which was launched in 2001 to enhance equitable participation of poorer countries which represent a majority of the world’s population.
However, the negotiation has been dogged by “disagreement between exporters of agricultural bulk commodities and countries with large numbers of subsistence farmers on the precise terms of a ’special safeguard measure’ to protect farmers from surges in imports. At this time, the future of the Doha Round is uncertain.”
The sixth WTO ministerial conference was held in Hong Kong from 13 December – 18 December 2005 with an aim to reach an agreement on Doha Round by 2006. In this meeting, countries agreed to phase out all their agricultural export subsidies by the end of 2013, and terminate any cotton export subsidies by the end of 2006. Further concessions to developing countries included an agreement to introduce duty free, tariff free access for goods from the Least Developed Countries, following the Everything But Arms initiative of the European Union — but with up to 3% of tariff lines exempted. Other major issues were left for further negotiation to be completed by the end of 2010.
Role of India in WTO
Why Do We Need WTO?
1. The main benefits of World Trade Organization are as follows: -
2. The system helps to contribute towards international peace, by helping the trade to flow smoothly and dealing with disputes over trade issues.
3. The system allows disputes to be handled constructively. With Global boundaries evading, more and more trade is taking place, and hence, leading to more chances for disputes. To put forth to the claim, around 300 cases have been filed since inception of WTO, and without peaceful and harmonious way to resolve them, they could have led to a political crisis.
4. It's a system, which is based on rules and has nothing to do with power of the nation.
5. It gives consumers more choice and a broader range of qualities to choose from.
6. The fact that there exists a forum to handle crisis, gives confidence to nations to do more and more trade, thereby increasing the income, and stimulating economic growth.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) is one of five institutions that comprise the World Bank Group. The IBRD is an international organization whose original mission was to finance the reconstruction of nations devastated by World War II. Now, its mission has expanded to fight poverty by means of financing states. Its operation is maintained through payments as regulated by member states. It came into existence on December 27, 1945 following international ratification of the agreements reached at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference of July 1 to July 22, 1944 in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire.
The IBRD provides loans to governments, and public enterprises, always with a government (or "sovereign") guarantee of repayment subject to general conditions . The funds for this lending come primarily from the issuing of World Bank bonds on the global capital markets—typically $12–15 billion per year. These bonds are rated AAA (the highest possible) because they are backed by member states' share capital, as well as by borrowers' sovereign guarantees. (In addition, loans that are repaid are recycled, or relent.) Because of the IBRD's credit rating, it is able to borrow at relatively low interest rates. As most developing countries have considerably lower credit ratings, the IBRD can lend to countries at interest rates that are usually quite attractive to them, even after adding a small margin (about 1%) to cover administrative overheads.
Wednesday, July 27, 2011
Wednesday, June 29, 2011
Oil Zapper and Bioremediation
ARUN JOSHI
Developed by TERI after seven years of research work and partly supported by the DBT (Department of Biotechnology), Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India, the Oilzapper is essentially a cocktail of five different bacterial strains that are immobilized and mixed with a carrier material (powdered corncob)
he Oilzapper feeds on hydrocarbon compounds present in crude oil and oily sludge (a hazardous hydrocarbon waste generated by oil refineries) and converts them into harmless CO2 and water. The Oilzapper is neatly packed into sterile polythene bags and sealed aseptically for safe transport. The shelf life of the product is three months at ambient temperature.
The scientific term for the above-mentioned process is bioremediation. 'Bio' refers to living and 'remediate' means to fix or cure. It is a branch of biotechnology that makes use of living organisms to reduce or eliminate environmental hazards resulting from accumulation of toxic chemicals, or hazardous waste. A first-of-its-kind solution, Oilzapper's uniqueness lies in the bio-friendly manner in which it detoxifies oily sludges and cleans up oil slicks.
Oilzapper has elicited tremendous response in India and abroad. The BPCL (Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd), the IOCL (Indian Oil Corporation Ltd), the ONGC (Oil and Natural Gas Corporation), the OIL (Oil India Ltd), the HPCL (Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd), and the RIL (Reliance Industries Ltd) are some of its consumers.
Developed by TERI after seven years of research work and partly supported by the DBT (Department of Biotechnology), Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India, the Oilzapper is essentially a cocktail of five different bacterial strains that are immobilized and mixed with a carrier material (powdered corncob)
he Oilzapper feeds on hydrocarbon compounds present in crude oil and oily sludge (a hazardous hydrocarbon waste generated by oil refineries) and converts them into harmless CO2 and water. The Oilzapper is neatly packed into sterile polythene bags and sealed aseptically for safe transport. The shelf life of the product is three months at ambient temperature.
The scientific term for the above-mentioned process is bioremediation. 'Bio' refers to living and 'remediate' means to fix or cure. It is a branch of biotechnology that makes use of living organisms to reduce or eliminate environmental hazards resulting from accumulation of toxic chemicals, or hazardous waste. A first-of-its-kind solution, Oilzapper's uniqueness lies in the bio-friendly manner in which it detoxifies oily sludges and cleans up oil slicks.
Oilzapper has elicited tremendous response in India and abroad. The BPCL (Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd), the IOCL (Indian Oil Corporation Ltd), the ONGC (Oil and Natural Gas Corporation), the OIL (Oil India Ltd), the HPCL (Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd), and the RIL (Reliance Industries Ltd) are some of its consumers.
inflation and related terms
ARUN JOSHI
What Does Inflation Mean?
The rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services is rising, and, subsequently, purchasing power is falling. Central banks attempt to stop severe inflation, along with severe deflation, in an attempt to keep the excessive growth of prices to a minimum.
Inflation: How Is It Measured?
Measuring inflation is a difficult problem for government statisticians. To do this, a number of goods that are representative of the economy are put together into what is referred to as a "market basket." The cost of this basket is then compared over time. This results in a price index, which is the cost of the market basket today as a percentage of the cost of that identical basket in the starting year.
In North America, there are two main price indexes that measure inflation:
• Consumer Price Index (CPI) - A measure of price changes in consumer goods and services such as gasoline, food, clothing and automobiles. The CPI measures price change from the perspective of the purchaser. U.S. CPI data can be found at the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
• Producer Price Indexes (PPI) - A family of indexes that measure the average change over time in selling prices by domestic producers of goods and services. PPIs measure price change from the perspective of the seller. U.S. PPI data can be found at the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
What causes a recession?
According to the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), recession is defined as "a significant decline in economic activity spread across the economy, lasting more than a few months, normally visible in real gross domestic product (GDP), real income, employment, industrial production and wholesale-retail sales". More specifically, recession is defined as when businesses cease to expand, the GDP diminishes for two consecutive quarters, the rate of unemployment rises and housing prices decline.
Many factors contribute to an economy's fall into a recession, but the major cause is inflation. Inflation refers to a general rise in the prices of goods and services over a period of time. The higher the rate of inflation, the smaller the percentage of goods and services that can be purchased with the same amount of money. Inflation can happen for reasons as varied as increased production costs, higher energy costs and national debt.
In an inflationary environment, people tend to cut out leisure spending, reduce overall spending and begin to save more. But as individuals and businesses curtail expenditures in an effort to trim costs, this causes GDP to decline. Unemployment rates rise because companies lay off workers to cut costs. It is these combined factors that cause the economy to fall into a recession.
What Does Inflation Mean?
The rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services is rising, and, subsequently, purchasing power is falling. Central banks attempt to stop severe inflation, along with severe deflation, in an attempt to keep the excessive growth of prices to a minimum.
Inflation: How Is It Measured?
Measuring inflation is a difficult problem for government statisticians. To do this, a number of goods that are representative of the economy are put together into what is referred to as a "market basket." The cost of this basket is then compared over time. This results in a price index, which is the cost of the market basket today as a percentage of the cost of that identical basket in the starting year.
In North America, there are two main price indexes that measure inflation:
• Consumer Price Index (CPI) - A measure of price changes in consumer goods and services such as gasoline, food, clothing and automobiles. The CPI measures price change from the perspective of the purchaser. U.S. CPI data can be found at the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
• Producer Price Indexes (PPI) - A family of indexes that measure the average change over time in selling prices by domestic producers of goods and services. PPIs measure price change from the perspective of the seller. U.S. PPI data can be found at the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
What causes a recession?
According to the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), recession is defined as "a significant decline in economic activity spread across the economy, lasting more than a few months, normally visible in real gross domestic product (GDP), real income, employment, industrial production and wholesale-retail sales". More specifically, recession is defined as when businesses cease to expand, the GDP diminishes for two consecutive quarters, the rate of unemployment rises and housing prices decline.
Many factors contribute to an economy's fall into a recession, but the major cause is inflation. Inflation refers to a general rise in the prices of goods and services over a period of time. The higher the rate of inflation, the smaller the percentage of goods and services that can be purchased with the same amount of money. Inflation can happen for reasons as varied as increased production costs, higher energy costs and national debt.
In an inflationary environment, people tend to cut out leisure spending, reduce overall spending and begin to save more. But as individuals and businesses curtail expenditures in an effort to trim costs, this causes GDP to decline. Unemployment rates rise because companies lay off workers to cut costs. It is these combined factors that cause the economy to fall into a recession.
Tuesday, June 28, 2011
Ecology worksheet 2
ARUN JOSHI
1. Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) is an apex body in the national forestry research system. It is located at----------------------
2. Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding (IFGTB) is located at----------------------
3. Tropical Forest Research Institute (TFRI) is located at--------------------------
4. BSI was established in---------------- with the basic objective to explore the plant resources of the country and to identify the plants species with economic virtues.
5. Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) is the apex institution under MOEF for research in Fauna. It has been undertaking exploration and research leading to the advancement of our knowledge on the exceptionally rich faunal diversity of the country since its inception in --------, with its Headquarters at ----------and sixteen regional centers located in different parts of the country.
6. Wildlife Institute of India (WII) was established in 1982. it is located at-------------
7. The Wild Life (Protection) Act came into force in----------------------
8. The Central Government has given Ganga the status of a------------- River’ and has constituted a ‘National Ganga River Basin Authority’ (NGRBA) on February 20, -------------
9. The concept of biodiversity hotspots was given by ---------------------------
10. India has two biodiversity hot spots, namely:------------and ---------------------
11. overall there are----------------- Biodiversity Hotspots
12. Central National Herbarium is located at --------------
13. CNH is one of the oldest and one of the largest herbaria in the world, was established in 1795 by-----------
14. Indian Botanic Garden was established in 1787 by------------------------
15. Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) is located at----------------
1. Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) is an apex body in the national forestry research system. It is located at----------------------
2. Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding (IFGTB) is located at----------------------
3. Tropical Forest Research Institute (TFRI) is located at--------------------------
4. BSI was established in---------------- with the basic objective to explore the plant resources of the country and to identify the plants species with economic virtues.
5. Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) is the apex institution under MOEF for research in Fauna. It has been undertaking exploration and research leading to the advancement of our knowledge on the exceptionally rich faunal diversity of the country since its inception in --------, with its Headquarters at ----------and sixteen regional centers located in different parts of the country.
6. Wildlife Institute of India (WII) was established in 1982. it is located at-------------
7. The Wild Life (Protection) Act came into force in----------------------
8. The Central Government has given Ganga the status of a------------- River’ and has constituted a ‘National Ganga River Basin Authority’ (NGRBA) on February 20, -------------
9. The concept of biodiversity hotspots was given by ---------------------------
10. India has two biodiversity hot spots, namely:------------and ---------------------
11. overall there are----------------- Biodiversity Hotspots
12. Central National Herbarium is located at --------------
13. CNH is one of the oldest and one of the largest herbaria in the world, was established in 1795 by-----------
14. Indian Botanic Garden was established in 1787 by------------------------
15. Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM) is located at----------------
Nagoya Protocol, a big victory for India
ARUN JOSHI
In a hard-fought triumph for India and other developing nations, a new international treaty to ensure that the benefits of natural resources and their commercial derivatives were shared with local communities was signed in the Japanese city of Nagoya.
However, the flip side is that the United States — one of the largest users of such resources — is not among the nearly 200 signatories of the Access and Benefit Sharing rules of the Nagoya Protocol. Getting the Americans into the net will be a key aim of the next U.N. summit on biodiversity to be held in New Delhi in 2012.
The new ABS Rules mean that multinational companies will have to share their profits with local communities not only for using the original resource, but also any derivative products developed from it. For example, a pharma company which develops a new drug from ingredients found in an Indian plant will now have to give a fair share to Indian communities which nurtured the plant in the first place.
International drug firms will also have to pay to use human genetic material such as pathogens – the germs responsible for virus pandemics which are used to develop lucrative vaccines. “Otherwise, these companies just take our pathogens, make the vaccine, and then make us pay billions of dollars to buy it from them,” Mr. Ramesh had said before the conference.
In order to bring the American companies into the ramifications of this agreement, the U.N.'s Convention on Biological Diversity must be linked to the World Trade Organisation's intellectual property agreement. “the TRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) must be amended to bring the U.S. into the mainstream. That is my single point agenda…to wrap up before Delhi 2012,” said Mr. Ramesh.
The Nagoya Protocol includes a sweeping plan to protect biodiversity by setting targets for 2020. Nations agreed to make 17 per cent of the globe's land area and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas into protected regions, as opposed to the current levels of 13 and one per cent.
They also agreed to bring “natural capital” into national accounting systems so that the trillions of dollars worth of benefits that nature provides to economies are valued. India will take the lead by undertaking a national study on The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity soon.
In a hard-fought triumph for India and other developing nations, a new international treaty to ensure that the benefits of natural resources and their commercial derivatives were shared with local communities was signed in the Japanese city of Nagoya.
However, the flip side is that the United States — one of the largest users of such resources — is not among the nearly 200 signatories of the Access and Benefit Sharing rules of the Nagoya Protocol. Getting the Americans into the net will be a key aim of the next U.N. summit on biodiversity to be held in New Delhi in 2012.
The new ABS Rules mean that multinational companies will have to share their profits with local communities not only for using the original resource, but also any derivative products developed from it. For example, a pharma company which develops a new drug from ingredients found in an Indian plant will now have to give a fair share to Indian communities which nurtured the plant in the first place.
International drug firms will also have to pay to use human genetic material such as pathogens – the germs responsible for virus pandemics which are used to develop lucrative vaccines. “Otherwise, these companies just take our pathogens, make the vaccine, and then make us pay billions of dollars to buy it from them,” Mr. Ramesh had said before the conference.
In order to bring the American companies into the ramifications of this agreement, the U.N.'s Convention on Biological Diversity must be linked to the World Trade Organisation's intellectual property agreement. “the TRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) must be amended to bring the U.S. into the mainstream. That is my single point agenda…to wrap up before Delhi 2012,” said Mr. Ramesh.
The Nagoya Protocol includes a sweeping plan to protect biodiversity by setting targets for 2020. Nations agreed to make 17 per cent of the globe's land area and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas into protected regions, as opposed to the current levels of 13 and one per cent.
They also agreed to bring “natural capital” into national accounting systems so that the trillions of dollars worth of benefits that nature provides to economies are valued. India will take the lead by undertaking a national study on The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity soon.
Saturday, June 25, 2011
BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF INDIA
ARUN JOSHI
BIO-GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF INDIA
Biogeography deals with the geographical distribution of plants and animals. Communities of plants and animals in different geographical areas of the world differ widely from each other. Biogeography is divided into branches: i] Phyto-geography and ii] Zoo-geography.
Phyto-geography (plant geography) deals with origin, distribution and environmental interrelationships of plants. Zoogeography deals with the migration and distribution of animals.
From the stand point of biodiversity, India is given the status of a “Mega-diversity” zone. There are 10 biogeographic zones witch are distinguished clearly in India. They are as follows—
v Trans Himalayan zone.
v Himalayan zone.
v Desert zone.
v Semiarid zone.
v Western ghat zone.
v Deccan platea zone.
v Gangetic plain zone.
v North east zone.
v Coastal zone.
v Islands present near the shore line.
1. Trans Himalayan zone:
This is the northern most area of the country around Himalayas. This zone is not related to mountains but it is the area present surrounding the mountains. This region shows 1. Irregular vegetation.
2. It has the richest wild sheep producing quality wool. 3. It has not only quality sheep but also goat community which is qualitatively and quantitatively in superior in the world. 4. Snow leopard is a special animal observable in this zone. 5. Migratory birds like black neck crane are seen here. The great Indian bustard which is an endangered variety is also seen in the grasslands west to this zone.
2. Himalayan zone:
This is a hilly region with good flora and fauna, exhibiting maximum biodiversity in this region. There are national parks here in this zone.
3. Desert zone:
This is a part of Rajasthan state, from where, the great desert of western India namely ‘Thar desert’ starts, and Desert zone is really a deserted zone with areas like Jaisalmir surrounded by sand dunes, which are the best centers for studying soil erosion by wind.
4. Semi arid zone:
It starts in Rajasthan and extends up to some parts in the state of Punjab and Haryana. In this area, ground water and surface water is much less. Dry xerophytic vegetation is predominant, fauna is also minimum. Very few orchids and bamboo and other plants are seen.
5. Western ghats:
It represents the mountainous western zone of south peninsular India having rich flora and fauna with tropical rain forests extending from Konkan region of Maharashtra up to the western part of Kerala generally called Malabaar coast of Arabian Sea.
Wild relatives of cultivated plants like banana, mango, citrus, black pepper are found abundantly in this part.
6. Deccan Plateau zone:
This is the central table land of south India with rich flora and fauna. But some areas represent semiarid type of vegetation. Rainfall occurs mainly by the south west monsoon, in these areas and so limited number of dense forests is present in Deccan. Deccan platean is represented in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Kerala.
It may be interesting to note that many medicinal plants are available South India like Rauwolffia serpentine, Cinchona officinalis, Vinca rosea commonly called perwinkle-which gives drugs like Vinicristin and Viniblastin that are used for treating cardio vascular ailments is also cultivated in this zone.
7. Indo-Gangetic plain:
This is a very fertility land zone. At the central part of North India, through which 2 mighty rivers, Indus (Sindhu) and Ganges (Ganga) flow along with their tributaries. Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej are 5 rivers from Indus that make Punjab, the granary of India. For Ganges there are tributaries like Yamuna that flow and enrich this zone.
8. North East part of India zone:
This is the North East Frontier Agency (NEFA) having 7 sister states like Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram and Manipur. These states have humid weather and mountainous terrain, having rich culture along with flora and fauna of rare endemic and endangered species of plants and animals in Khasi and Garo hills of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Assam which are the pioneering states that lead in cultivation of tea and coffee plantations.
9 & 10. Coastal zone and islands near by the coast:
The Eastern Ghats are not as high as Western Ghats and not having many dense forests. They are characterized by having dry zones with scrub jungle type of xerophytic forests. The Andaman and Nicobar islands show flora and fauna similar to Eastern ghats. Lakshadweep islands, show flora and fauna similar to Malabaar coast. The islands on either side of peninsular India are also rich in their flora and fauna exactly replicating the peninsular type of vegetation in the Sea Islands also.
BIO-GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS OF INDIA
Biogeography deals with the geographical distribution of plants and animals. Communities of plants and animals in different geographical areas of the world differ widely from each other. Biogeography is divided into branches: i] Phyto-geography and ii] Zoo-geography.
Phyto-geography (plant geography) deals with origin, distribution and environmental interrelationships of plants. Zoogeography deals with the migration and distribution of animals.
From the stand point of biodiversity, India is given the status of a “Mega-diversity” zone. There are 10 biogeographic zones witch are distinguished clearly in India. They are as follows—
v Trans Himalayan zone.
v Himalayan zone.
v Desert zone.
v Semiarid zone.
v Western ghat zone.
v Deccan platea zone.
v Gangetic plain zone.
v North east zone.
v Coastal zone.
v Islands present near the shore line.
1. Trans Himalayan zone:
This is the northern most area of the country around Himalayas. This zone is not related to mountains but it is the area present surrounding the mountains. This region shows 1. Irregular vegetation.
2. It has the richest wild sheep producing quality wool. 3. It has not only quality sheep but also goat community which is qualitatively and quantitatively in superior in the world. 4. Snow leopard is a special animal observable in this zone. 5. Migratory birds like black neck crane are seen here. The great Indian bustard which is an endangered variety is also seen in the grasslands west to this zone.
2. Himalayan zone:
This is a hilly region with good flora and fauna, exhibiting maximum biodiversity in this region. There are national parks here in this zone.
3. Desert zone:
This is a part of Rajasthan state, from where, the great desert of western India namely ‘Thar desert’ starts, and Desert zone is really a deserted zone with areas like Jaisalmir surrounded by sand dunes, which are the best centers for studying soil erosion by wind.
4. Semi arid zone:
It starts in Rajasthan and extends up to some parts in the state of Punjab and Haryana. In this area, ground water and surface water is much less. Dry xerophytic vegetation is predominant, fauna is also minimum. Very few orchids and bamboo and other plants are seen.
5. Western ghats:
It represents the mountainous western zone of south peninsular India having rich flora and fauna with tropical rain forests extending from Konkan region of Maharashtra up to the western part of Kerala generally called Malabaar coast of Arabian Sea.
Wild relatives of cultivated plants like banana, mango, citrus, black pepper are found abundantly in this part.
6. Deccan Plateau zone:
This is the central table land of south India with rich flora and fauna. But some areas represent semiarid type of vegetation. Rainfall occurs mainly by the south west monsoon, in these areas and so limited number of dense forests is present in Deccan. Deccan platean is represented in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Kerala.
It may be interesting to note that many medicinal plants are available South India like Rauwolffia serpentine, Cinchona officinalis, Vinca rosea commonly called perwinkle-which gives drugs like Vinicristin and Viniblastin that are used for treating cardio vascular ailments is also cultivated in this zone.
7. Indo-Gangetic plain:
This is a very fertility land zone. At the central part of North India, through which 2 mighty rivers, Indus (Sindhu) and Ganges (Ganga) flow along with their tributaries. Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej are 5 rivers from Indus that make Punjab, the granary of India. For Ganges there are tributaries like Yamuna that flow and enrich this zone.
8. North East part of India zone:
This is the North East Frontier Agency (NEFA) having 7 sister states like Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, Tripura, Mizoram and Manipur. These states have humid weather and mountainous terrain, having rich culture along with flora and fauna of rare endemic and endangered species of plants and animals in Khasi and Garo hills of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Assam which are the pioneering states that lead in cultivation of tea and coffee plantations.
9 & 10. Coastal zone and islands near by the coast:
The Eastern Ghats are not as high as Western Ghats and not having many dense forests. They are characterized by having dry zones with scrub jungle type of xerophytic forests. The Andaman and Nicobar islands show flora and fauna similar to Eastern ghats. Lakshadweep islands, show flora and fauna similar to Malabaar coast. The islands on either side of peninsular India are also rich in their flora and fauna exactly replicating the peninsular type of vegetation in the Sea Islands also.
Thursday, June 23, 2011
VOTE-ON-ACCOUNT AND INTERIM BUDGET
THE CONCEPT of vote-on-account was introduced in the parliamentary process with a definite perspective. The financial year ends on March 31. It is therefore essential that all the stages of the debate on the budget presented to Parliament, including the general discussion, discussion on demands of grants of various Ministries, appropriation bill and finance bill are completed before March 31.
If discussion covering all the stages is not completed by March 31, no financial resources will be available for the expenditure of various Ministries in the next financial year. To prevent such an exigency, by way of abundant caution, a vote-on-account is introduced in Parliament sanctioning roughly one-third of the expenditure projected in the budget. Then, even if the discussion during all the stages of the debate is not completed and it spills over beyond March 31, on the basis of the amounts sanctioned by Parliament through the vote-on-account financial crisis is avoided. The convention is that such a vote-on-account is accepted in Parliament without division.
There is another situation under which vote-on-account becomes inevitable and inescapable; when the Lok Sabha is elected quite close to March 31, with hardly a few days left for the presentation and discussion of a full-fledged budget. Vote-on-account, popularly known as "interim budget," then becomes unavoidable.
Some facts on VOA in India
The first VOA in India was presented in the year 1952-53. Till date there have been 11 VOAs held in India, five by the outgoing government and six by the new government, as they did not have enough time to present a full annual budget.
Are a vote-on-account and an interim Budget the same?
No. While a vote-on-account deals only with the expenditure side of the government's budget, an interim Budget is a complete set of accounts, including both expenditure and receipts.
So what is a full Budget?
The Budget is a statement of the financial position of an administration for a definite period of time based on estimates of expenditures during the period and proposals for financing them. A full budget thus spells out both the manner in which the money is to be spent and how it is to be raised.
Why a vote-on-account and not an interim Budget?
A caretaker government typically opts for a vote-on-account, as it is regarded improper for an outgoing government to impose on its successor changes that may or may not be acceptable to the incoming government.
Can a caretaker government not present a full Budget?
Yes it can. Since the concept of 'caretaker government' does not exist in the Indian Constitution, legally there is no distinction between caretaker government and a normal one.
Technically, it is not necessary for a government to present a vote-on-account in an election year. But a full Budget just before the elections makes a mockery of the whole exercise.
Can the finance minister make policy statements while presenting the vote-on-account?
Barring any announcement on taxation, the finance minister's speech before seeking Parliament's approval of the vote-on-account can contain his intentions on economic policy.
When former finance minister Yashwant Sinha presented the vote-on account in 1991, he announced the Chandra Shekhar government's plan to divest government equity in public sector undertakings.
For how long can a vote-on-account be in force?
Normally, the vote-on-account is taken for two months only. But during election year or when it is anticipated that the main Demands and Appropriation Bill will take longer time than two months, the vote-on-account may be for a period extending two months.
Typically this period does not exceed six months, as that is the maximum gap possible between two sittings of the Parliament.
Normally a vote-on-account is in operation till the full Budget is passed.
If discussion covering all the stages is not completed by March 31, no financial resources will be available for the expenditure of various Ministries in the next financial year. To prevent such an exigency, by way of abundant caution, a vote-on-account is introduced in Parliament sanctioning roughly one-third of the expenditure projected in the budget. Then, even if the discussion during all the stages of the debate is not completed and it spills over beyond March 31, on the basis of the amounts sanctioned by Parliament through the vote-on-account financial crisis is avoided. The convention is that such a vote-on-account is accepted in Parliament without division.
There is another situation under which vote-on-account becomes inevitable and inescapable; when the Lok Sabha is elected quite close to March 31, with hardly a few days left for the presentation and discussion of a full-fledged budget. Vote-on-account, popularly known as "interim budget," then becomes unavoidable.
Some facts on VOA in India
The first VOA in India was presented in the year 1952-53. Till date there have been 11 VOAs held in India, five by the outgoing government and six by the new government, as they did not have enough time to present a full annual budget.
Are a vote-on-account and an interim Budget the same?
No. While a vote-on-account deals only with the expenditure side of the government's budget, an interim Budget is a complete set of accounts, including both expenditure and receipts.
So what is a full Budget?
The Budget is a statement of the financial position of an administration for a definite period of time based on estimates of expenditures during the period and proposals for financing them. A full budget thus spells out both the manner in which the money is to be spent and how it is to be raised.
Why a vote-on-account and not an interim Budget?
A caretaker government typically opts for a vote-on-account, as it is regarded improper for an outgoing government to impose on its successor changes that may or may not be acceptable to the incoming government.
Can a caretaker government not present a full Budget?
Yes it can. Since the concept of 'caretaker government' does not exist in the Indian Constitution, legally there is no distinction between caretaker government and a normal one.
Technically, it is not necessary for a government to present a vote-on-account in an election year. But a full Budget just before the elections makes a mockery of the whole exercise.
Can the finance minister make policy statements while presenting the vote-on-account?
Barring any announcement on taxation, the finance minister's speech before seeking Parliament's approval of the vote-on-account can contain his intentions on economic policy.
When former finance minister Yashwant Sinha presented the vote-on account in 1991, he announced the Chandra Shekhar government's plan to divest government equity in public sector undertakings.
For how long can a vote-on-account be in force?
Normally, the vote-on-account is taken for two months only. But during election year or when it is anticipated that the main Demands and Appropriation Bill will take longer time than two months, the vote-on-account may be for a period extending two months.
Typically this period does not exceed six months, as that is the maximum gap possible between two sittings of the Parliament.
Normally a vote-on-account is in operation till the full Budget is passed.
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